Hybrid Vehicles and Alternative Fuels

Hybrid Vehicles and Alternative Fuels Hybrid vehicles alternative fuels are a key part in reducing pollution. Many people do not realize what might happen if alternative methods of transportation are not developed in the near future. Development of hybrid vehicles is growing more important with each passing day. With no end in sight for lower prices of gasoline much of society is beginning to feel the economic squeeze. Hybrid vehicles could help reduce emissions, and reduce dependence on foreign oil thus taking society out of crude oil chokehold. Hybrid vehicles, when one thinks of them many things may come to mind, things such as small, ugly, not â€Å"cool,† but one needs to look beyond the exterior and what the benefits are. Hybrid vehicles could possibly be one of the most important elements to the future habitation of this planet. Resources are being depleted and used up. Resources that are everyday occurrences for society such as oil, coal, and many other resources that are being depleted, and need to be replaced with other viable solutions for energy. Energy sources such as wind fields, solar panels, and many other new option are growing more and more important each day. However, nothing seems to be more daunting than the oil crisis that looms over most of the world. Oil prices continue to grow every day, causing an economic squeeze on many lower income families. â€Å"Over the next 30 years oil demand is expected to grow by 60%† (Dooly, Fitzpatrick, Lewis, 2007, p.657). Also, not to mention the pollution problem that continues to grow daily, with pollution rates rising steadily and no end in sight society is swiftly approaching crisis mode. â€Å"With the introduction of modern passenger cars and vastly increased demand for power, the twentieth century saw rapid increases in the use of fossil fuels† (Dooly, Fitzpatrick, Lewis, 2007, p.657). This may not surprise many people, as it is widely known that sport utility vehicles (SUV’s) have been the option to fulfill societies need for power. This increase in vehicles is promoting the growing pollution problem; the increased burning of fossil fuels has pollution rates growing high er with each passing day. Nevertheless, as it is thought that the increase of use of fossil fuels has only been a problem for the past twenty years, this problem was getting a head start over 150 years ago. According to Dooly, Fitzpatrick, and Lewis (2007, p.657) â€Å"since the industrial revolution in the mid 1800s worldwide energy consumption has been growing steadily.† This is shocking to think that that long ago pollution was already beginning to grow. With the growing talk of global warming and its effects on the earth, and its surroundings, the thought thereof is intimidating alone. Over the past several years scientists have done extensive research into global warming. Research has varied greatly from scientific group to group, one side saying that it is real and is happening, and the other saying that there is not enough supporting evidence to confirm the theory of global warming. Yet on the other hand, the majority of society does know one thing, that pollution, whether from factories, cars, or any other business establishment belching out smoke, cannot be a good thing. In contrast to the gloom and doom of pollution and how it can affect the earth, and several aspects of life, now begins the adventurous quest to make the world a better place. Not only for the present, but also for the future inhabitants of this earth. Reversing pollution problems cannot and will not be done overnight, and it will most certainly not be done by just one person. To reverse this deepening rut that has been dug, it will take a combined effort of nations to make a difference. One might ask why the word adventurous is used to describe reversing this cycle of pollution. As of now there really is no catalyst to begin ending the cycle and begin with the newer greener lifestyle. There are still, however, many things that can make a great impact. To give an example on how far things have gone in the wrong direction in the mode of travel and vehicle use is best summed up by Briggs, Hoogh, Morris, and Gulliver (2008, p.12) â€Å"nationally the trips made on foot has declined by more than 20% since the early 1990s† this is a good example how the vehicle use has grown by a great margin in the past ten years. When there is a decrease in trips made on foot, bicycle, or even subway or train, there has to be an increase somewhere in travel. This increase more often than not occurs in an increase made by a motor vehicle. The increase in travel has made a global impact on many things. The increase in demand of oil, and increased emissions affects many other elements of everyday life. Obviously asking to completely reduce trips made by vehicle is a lot to ask. It may be too much, especially with the fast paced lifestyle. It cannot go unnoticed by society; trips are being made more frequently, and for longer distances. It is expected that European transport is to grow greatly in transportation, in both road, and air transport (Van Mierlo, Maggetto, 2006). On the upside of all of this negative talk, rest assured that there is something being done. Over the past fifteen to twenty years many advances have been made to reduce emissions in vehicles. Many new fuels are being tried and developed in an effort to find viable solutions to gasoline (crude oil). This process is a slow moving operation amid much trial and error, and brick walls, nonetheless breakthroughs have been experienced. As of now there is not only one, but several fuels that have potential for being the next gasoline. Talk of methanol, ethanol, hydrogen, electric, and many other lower priority fuels that have essentially not been given the recognition that the others have. Not only would a new fuel such as ethanol. Help reduce dependence on foreign oil, but the other advantage would be lower emissions. Romm stated: Alternative fuel vehicles (AFV’s) face two central problems. First, they typically suffer from several marketplace disadvantages compared to conventional vehicles running on conventional fuels. Hence, they probably require government incentives or mandates to succeed. Second, they typically do not provide cost-effective solutions to major energy and environmental problems, which undermines the policy case for having the government intervene in the marketplace to support them (2006, p. 2610). These are important issues to the hybrid cause because it is an opposition, which will make it tougher to make hybrid vehicles and have them catch on. The road for hybrid vehicles and alternative fuels is not going to be an easy one. Ethanol is probably one of the alternative fuels that is at the forefront of the race, and making the strongest bid to become the next solution to gasoline. Ethanol has done several good things since it has started. Ethanol is taken from corn. This alone most likely is going make the market for corn better than it has been in the past couple of years. Corn is also expected to reach peak prices in the near future. However, there are two sides to the story of ethanol. While none of it has been confirmed as of yet, it is claimed that cost of production of ethanol and transporting it that it actually ends up being more expensive to use. Farrell et al., (2006, p. 506) also said â€Å"whether manufacturing ethanol takes more nonrenewable energy than the resulting fuel provides. It has long been that the calculations of net energy are highly sensitive to assumptions.† Could this be a futile enterprise to produce this fuel? While much of this has not been given proper analysis by prof essionals in the field, it is still something one would need to keep in mind, should a time of consideration of buying an ethanol burning vehicle arise. Another downside to ethanol is that when it comes to fueling arrangements, stations that carry it are mostly in the Midwest, after that, fill ups are few and far between. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel source that is being tested. Research continues to be conducted to improve it; it has already been tested and works. New ways to produce it are on the horizon. Producing it from soybeans is an option but not yet thoroughly researched and developed. â€Å"For the diesel engine seed-oil bio-fuels have been widely examined across the world, as a suitable alternative† (Crookes, 2006, p. 461). One of the neat things about biodiesel is that it can be made and refined at home. Used oil from deep fryers at restaurants can be used to make biodiesel. All of this sounds really great, but the bad thing with biodiesel is that it does not have the octane that comes with regular diesel. There are other disadvantages to biodiesel as well, For instance, in colder climates it does not function as well as regular diesel. The same can be said for towing with biodiesel it just does not have the power. While there are some cold hard facts about biodiesel, it is stil l a vital component to reducing dependence on foreign oil. â€Å"The hydrogen economy has received increasing attention recently† (Waegel, Byrne, Tobin, Haney, 2006, p. 288). This is for good reason too. Hydrogen is a fuel that if it is made to work will greatly reduce environmental impacts. Hydrogen has potential to be a great alternative fuel, if it pans out. â€Å"Whether the hydrogen is produced by steam reforming of natural gas, wind electrolysis, or coal gasification. Most benefits would result from eliminating current vehicle exhaust† (Jacobson, Colella, Golden, 2005, p.1901). Development however for hydrogen is not at its best. On a good note if hydrogen becomes a viable fuel, it would be a zero emissions fuel. If there is a significant number of people using hydrogen fuel vehicles in the future, a great decrease in emissions would inevitably follow. Although all of this sounds wonderful and dandy, there is a darker side to hydrogen. It is not fully developed, and this writer does not believe it will be in the near fu ture. Hydrogen is still extremely expensive. According to Waegel, Byrne, Tobin, and Haney, (2006, p. 289) â€Å"in terms of economics, hydrogen from natural gas is 50 % to 100% more than an equivalent amount of gasoline.† That is bad news for hydrogen, not to mention the price of transportation of hydrogen which also is expensive. Hydrogen most definitely has its work cut out for itself. Electric vehicles are next on the list of possible solutions as an alternative fuel. Even though it is not necessarily a fuel, it is still an alternate mode of transportation. Electric vehicles have many good qualities they do not put out emissions, and they are quiet. Both of those qualities are good for city living. Some experts believe that electric vehicles are going to be an integral part in reducing pollution. With proper engineering, this is quite possible. The most likely hybrid car in the foreseeable future is the electric vehicle with less fuel consumption, and reduced emissions. Minimal change in vehicle styles means that the safety would not be compromised, and nothing resulting in job loss (Romm, 2006). Electric most definitely has a strong place in this market. In fact electric cars may be starting to be seen more often. Especially in cities where transportation does not require going a great distance to do everyday tasks such as getting groceries, going to school, and things of that nature. With the new advantages in electric technology, businesses that need outdoor transportation are more likely to turn to electric vehicles rather than the traditional four-wheeler, or other all-terrain-vehicle. It is extremely plausible that electric vehicles will be popping up all over the world. Electric will be a contributor as an alternative fuel. Altogether there are various fuels that have a good chance of being the next gasoline. Ones such as electric do not have a chance to be a permanent option to gasoline. Electric will however be a large contributor. Keep in mind that these research efforts and new ideas for fuel are not intended to completely factor out gasoline. Gasoline will always be used for some application. What these new fuels are intended to do is reduce dependence on foreign oil, and help decrease gasoline prices while reducing pollution at the same time (Waegel, Byrne, Tobin, Haney). The next order of business is to get to the actual vehicles themselves. Contrary to what one might think, a hybrid car is not a new concept; in fact it is probably older than what most people think Many people think that hybrid vehicles are a very recent development, but many would be surprised at how old the concept really is. The history of hybrid vehicles goes back to 1665. Between that year and 1825, Flemish Jesuit priest and astronomer Ferdinand Verbiest created plans for a steam â€Å"car† for Chinese Emperor Khang Hsi, Frenchman Nicholas Cugnot built a steam-powered motor carriage capable of six miles per hour, and British inventor Goldsworthy Gurney built a steam car that successfully completed an 85-mile journey in ten hours. In 1839, Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland, built the first electric vehicle (Griffin, Shen, 2007, p.177). General Motors (GM) has made its mark on hybrid history. â€Å"Most of the early work by General Motors was due to the concern for increasing price of gasoline at the time of the oil embargo.† (Rajashekara, 1993, p.447) GM also had the first electric fuel cell vehicle in the Electro van, and also had an electric truck for military application. (Rajashekara, 1993) Contrary to what some people may think, research on hybrid vehicles started more than three-hundred years ago. Now evidently they began working with steam technology because they had no knowledge or the resources to create an internal combustion engine. When it is thought about for a short period of time, steam technology for the first steam boats had to have been tested on land before put to use on water. Therefore the first steam car advancements should not be thrown out as worthless for they did lay the groundwork for other future uses. Even when Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine, it was meant to run on peanut oil! This however did not turn out so that they ran peanut oil in it, because at the time diesel was cheaper to process. Now with the ever higher price of diesel, refining used restaurant oil to use in diesel engines is beginning to take on. Now that the history of hybrid vehicles is taken care of, it is time to get to the flesh of the issue, hybrid vehicles. Hybrid vehicles will be the most essential component to reducing pollution, and end the vicious cycle that has been started. Hybrid vehicles have grown by leaps and bounds over the past ten years. New prototypes are being worked on researched, and developed daily. However they do not always get a good review. Hybrid vehicles tend to be somewhat smaller than conventional vehicles. This condition tends to make people think somewhat differently about them. â€Å"Hybrids pose no more danger in a collision than do conventional vehicles.† (Griffin, Shen, 2007, p. 178) Also people who drive them are wrongfully stereotyped, stereotyped into being some sort of environmentalist democrat wanting to ban firearms, impose noise ordinances, and do anything they can to keep people from having any fun. Well this is just not true. It is negative images like this that can thro w an effort to promote hybrid vehicles askew. Hybrids are important in every aspect of a green future. Fewer emissions, cleaner air, reduced dependence on foreign oil and better gas mileage, are all benefits that are at stake if hybrid vehicles never catch on. Research was done to by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) by conducting a survey in the years 2003, and 2005, to find out influenced them to buy their hybrid vehicles, the survey results are illustrated below. Graph 1. Share of respondents The results appear to be not much different from year to year. These are however the most common reasons why hybrid vehicles are purchased, and with no surprises, saving money on gas at the head of the pack. The above results are promising ones. They show hope for the future of hybrid vehicles. Now what exactly makes a hybrid vehicle a hybrid vehicle? Hybrid vehicles are just that they are hybrids not only in a sense of how they are powered but also in other aspects in addition to having a power source other than that of gasoline or diesel. Many key elements and time consuming research go into developing a hybrid vehicle. For starters, weight reduction is a key component to making a hybrid vehicle. Even when using a conventional fuel, weight reduction should be given close attention. â€Å"The demand for weight reductions in automobiles has been increasing in recent years because of global environmental issues.† (Saito, Iwatsuki, Yasunaga, Ando, 2000, p. 516) Toyota has done something extremely great by making the Prius. The Prius is a type of hybrid car that runs on both electric and internal combustion engines. The Prius when starting from a complete stop runs solely on battery power, and at low speeds from 5 to 20 miles per hour, it also runs on battery. When it reaches higher speeds the gasoline engine kicks in to assist. The Prius is said to get 40 to 50 miles per gallon. The battery will not run dead because when the gasoline engine turns on it runs the alternator and charges the battery. While companies like Ford, Chevrolet, and others have made their mark on the hybrid economy, Ford with the Escape, and Chevrolet with the new hybrid Yukon, none of them have had quite the impact that Toyota has. When it comes down to it, it is hard to describe how very important hybrid vehicles will be to the future. Hybrid vehicles hold the key to a cleaner environment, and lessening dependence on foreign oil. As of now hybrids do not have the popularity in the world that is needed. If the world continues to pollute at the rate it is going at now, the implications will be serious. More effort is needed from everyone to make this world a better place, and while hybrid vehicles are going to be extremely important, that is not the only thing that can be done. If one is not in a position to be able to drive a hybrid vehicle, other opportunities are out there to help the environment. Recycling is something that always helps the environment, and doing things such as walking, riding a bike, or even taking the bus can have bigger impact than is thought. This writer concludes that hybrid vehicles are an integral part of making a greener environment. Without them, along with the increasing rate of po llution, many countries are headed on a crash course for disaster. References Briggs, B.J., Hoogh, K., Morris, C., Gulliver, J. (2008). Effects of travel mode on exposures to particulate air pollution. Environmental International, 34, 12-22. Retrieved February 30, 2008, from Science Direct. Crookes, R.J. (2006). Comparative bio-fuel performance in internal combustion engines. Biomass Bioenergy,30, 461-468. Retrieved February 17, 2008, from Science Direct. Dooly, G., Fitzpatrick, C., Lewis, E. (2008). Optical sensing of hazardous exhaust emissions using a UV based extrinsic sensor. Energy, 33, 657-666. Retrieved May 30, 2008, from Science Direct. Farrell, A.E., Plevin, R.J., Turner, B.T., Jones, A.D., O’Hare, M., Kammen, D.M. (2006). Ethanol can contribute to energy and environmental goals. Science, 311, 506-508. Retrieved February 8, 2008, from www.sciencemag.org. Griffin, M.D., Shen, Q. (2007). Hybrid vehicles- are university students in North Alabama ready to buy them? Journal of Alabama Academy of Science, 78,175-178. Retrieved February 20, 2008 from IEEE Jacobson, M.Z., Colella, W.G., Golden, D.M. (2005). Cleaning the air and improving health with hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. Science, 308, 1901-1905. Retrieved March 5, 2008, from www.sciencemag.org. Rajashekara, K. (1993). History of electric vehicles in General Motors. 447-454. Retrieved February 15, 2008, from IEEE Romm, J. (2006). The car and fuel of the future. Energy policy, 34, 2609-2614. Retrieved February 27, 2008, from Science Direct. Saito, M., Iwatsuki, S., Yasunaga, K., Andoh, K. (2000). Development of aluminum body for the most fuel efficient vehicle. JSAE review, 21, 511-516. Retrieved March 1, 2008, from Science Direct. U.S. Department of Energy. (2006). Why purchase a hybrid vehicle? Retrieved April 15, 2008, from http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2006_fact_fotw417.html Van Mierlo, J., Maggetto, G. (2007). Fuel cell or battery: Electric cars are the future. Fuel cells, 2, 165-173. Retrieved February 18, from Wiley interscience. Waegel, A., Byrne, J., Tobin, D., Haney, B. (2006). Hydrogen highways: Lessons on the energy technology-policy interface. Bulletin of science, technology society 26, 288-298, from Science Direct.

Napoleon’s success in Europe to 1807 Essay

To what extent was Napoleon’s success in Europe to 1807 the consequences of his own military ability? Napoleon’s success in Europe to 1807 could not have been the consequences of a single factor, his own military ability, but rather a combination of linking, interdependent factors, some of which playing a greater role than others, but all helping Napoleon along the road to success. It is undeniable that if fate had given Napoleon an entirely different set of circumstances (if he had not been able to rise through the ranks as easily, if France had not the massive population it did e.t.c) then, no matter how intelligent or able he was, he would not have enjoyed the kind of success he did. Correlli Barnett, in his book Bonaparte, is very critical of Napoleon and his tactics, claiming that it was largely the incompetence and weaknesses of his enemies that enabled him to achieve success. For example, on the Battle of Ulm (October 1805), Barnett talks about what might have happened if Austria had a â€Å"general more active than Mack†, who broke out with a single Austrian corps right across Bonaparte’s communications. The Austrian army had an impressive artillery which could have posed a threat to Napoleon if combined with Russia, but there was no universal language, and with it’s varied ethnic and racial populations this was a huge problem – it slowed communication and often left many in a state of confusion. This also meant that there was no real national identity allowing the kind of patriotism that the French could use to fight with. The Russian army also had huge problems, one of the main ones being the fact that the soldiers did not want to be fighting a war at all. Surrounding the conscript army was a negative, fatalistic view of army life – a darkly amusing fact is that soldiers could often go to their own funeral before they were conscripted away to battle. Apart from the fact that they were treated like criminals, Russian soldiers were also poorly trained, severely lacking in tactical awareness and education. Prussia on the other hand, with its fine tradition, had a very strong army. However, the Prussian skirmishes were poor and the army missed a sense of individuality (instinct or initiative) and instead acted after strategic planning alone. Furthermore, the Prussian artillery could not come close to the French standards, being completely out gunned on some occasions, even when the French had far less numbers. The British army, before 1807, was not much of a force to be reckoned with – it was fairly tiny and was not as strong or quick as the French army. Even though the weaknesses of Napoleon’s enemies were rather considerable before 1807, he would not have been able to profit from these weaknesses if it were not for his military genius and the strength of his army. When he came to power, Napoleon inherited a huge and incredibly strong army to do with whatever he pleased. The French army fought for a cause. They were not as mercenaries, not as men impressed against their will, but as citizens honorably defending their revolution against its threatened destruction by outside forces. People were full of this revolutionary ardour and actively sought battle. This was a wholly new perspective of war and the causes it was fought for. Generally, Napoleon’s enemies fought Wars of maneuvers and not, unlike Napoleon’s army, with the intention of completely annihilating the enemy. They relied on aggressive shock tactics and the momentum of the bayonet charge to bring them success. The French fought with more purpose and feeling than any other nation because they had a war with a strong purpose – a terrorist war. Also, Napoleon’s army was blessed with a variety of talented commanders and officers. The great military theorist, the prussian, Von Clausewitz wrote ‘on war’ in 1832. In this he put forward his view that 1793 marked a turning point in the organization of armies and the conduct of war. He considered that both were changed forever by the creation of the year of the ‘French nation in arms’ (the levee en masse) that transformed limited war into total war. This refers to when the previous man in change of the army, Carnot, introduced a forced conscription to all able civilians. As well as conscription,1793 brought with it the first amalgame – the merging of remnants of the old army with the new. The introduction of veteran soldiers into the new army did much to bring order into its early chaotic organization without destroying its verve, and formed the fighting force which Napoleon used as the basis of his grande armee. The amalgame also brought a great deal of military experience to his army Furthermore, the sheer size of Napoleons inherited army was the largest ever seen in Europe, a million men, and provided him with the ammunition, if you like, to launch devastating attacks on his enemies. He therefore inherited significant developments which had been introduced by the Republic, and which he subsequently built upon. The strength of his army, however, would not have been anywhere near as impressive if he had not the domestic foundations for success or strength of mind to know what to do with it. France had a huge population of around 28 million (the largest population in any single state in Europe) and so simply had a greater number of men to choose from. This also enabled Carnot to introduce the levee en masse which enlisted a massive 80,000 men each year into the army, fueling France’s battles, which could be fought more often, more continuously and on more fronts than any other country. Although the large majority were from poor peasant families, universal conscription brought me from all classes together and created a new sense of unity in France. Also, France had a whole society organized for war. Napoleon had a military dictatorship so could use all the resources of the state and was not held accountable for his failures (e.g leaving armies in Egypt and Russia and losing 50,000 men a year as opposed to Wellington’s 6,000). This greater amount of authority meant that Napoleon could make all of his appointments personally, and not by advisors. e also created a meritocracy within the army, a kind of ‘privileged military caste’. This said that if you do well in the French army, you get rewards or offices of state (giving officers incentives to succeed). Furthermore, Napoleon controlled all press and channels of communication so could have a careful watch over his country and could make sure that all efforts were in favour of driving on the savage French war machine. Although the sheer size of the army enabled Napoleon to create his grande armee and the resources of France could be used to help the war effort, Napoleon’s ability and qualities as a general were absolutely vital in securing his success to 1807. Napoleon was widely known as being able to inspire loyalty. He gave the appearance of knowing everybody in his army and always knowing what was going on. He played on the ideas of military glory, of patriotism and comradeship, while giving at the same time the impression that he had a deep paternal concern for his men. For example, he would single people out and congratulate them by name, very personally. He used theatrical and emotive language in his bulletins and orders of the day to forge bonds between him and his soldiers. For example, in a Bulletin in 1805 he wrote that â€Å"The Emperor is among you†. Despite his generally unprepossessing appearance, when he wished to charm he could quickly win over anyone he met, however initially hostile he might be. This sort of confidence was also shown on the battlefield where Wellington observed that the effect of his presence was worth an additional force of 40,000 men to the French army. He was very charismatic and could play on the soldiers greed by promising loot, a material reward for their toils. He could also rally himself with them, â€Å"Whatever the obstacles we meet, we shall overcome them†. All these factors earned Napoleon the adoration of his soldiers. Whatever point of view one takes, it is a fact that Napoleon possessed a very gifted military mind. Napoleon’s prime tactic was to avoid a slugging match and focusing his strengths on the enemies weaknesses. He picked weakest spots and then blasted huge chunks out of them with his artillery. He had flexibility with his corps (taken from the ideas of Guibert), and would use them to come from unexpected directions and attack weak points. He was known for his pragmatism and opportunism, but there is a great debate over whether Napoleon was a great strategic planner or whether he was a scrambler, good at scrambling and improvising his way to victory. Gunther Rothenburg praises his qualities, but believed he was a ‘Planner’ instead of a scrambler, giving the example of his maneuver on Ulm which he describes as ‘well co-ordinated and swift’. However, historians such as Owen Connolly are critical of the traditional interpretation of Napoleon and says that he was a great improviser with no tactical doctrine who would simply profit from his enemy’s mistakes. Even though both of these historians, and many like them, disagree on this aspect of him, they both say that Napoleon was probably the greatest commander of all time. This shows that, even though he may have been gifted with extraordinary circumstances, Napoleon’s towering genius was the major driving force in his success and it is obvious that no ordinary commander could have gone as far as he did. After looking at various factors in Napoleon’s success in Europe to 1807, it is evident that the scale of Napoleons success was dependent on a number of things; population size, Carnot’s policy of conscription, French resources and the relative weakness of his enemies. Napoleon’s journey to success was paved by a number of these absolutely crucial factors, without which no success would have been possible. Even though his military ability was one of these vital paving stones, one cannot really argue that it was more or less important than other crucial factors because they were all instrumental in allowing the extent of extent of Napoleon’s success to be realized. However, I am positive that if Napoleon did have a less fortunate army given to him when he came to power, his enemies stronger, and the potential opportunity for success had not been so great, he would still have made the best out of what he had and would have made relative success, showing his huge military capabilities.

Effects of Junk food Essay

The moons of Saturn are a very interesting topic to research. Before beginning this amazing journey on the moons, first we must do a brief overview of the planet Saturn. Saturn is the sixth largest planet from the sun; it is very large and does not have very much water. This research paper will explore the different moons, the names, atmosphere, similarities and sizes of the moons. Saturn has 62 moons that have been discovered but only 52 have been given an official name while the others still are waiting to have specific information found out about them to give them a name. Only 18 moons have been officially sanctioned by the International Astronomical Union. The names of the moons come from characters in Greek and Roman mythology. The moons are made up of about 30 to 40 percent rock and about 60 to 70 percent water. The Saturn Moons so diversity in many area, let’s explore their differences. Since there are too many to name we will discuss the more poplar moons. Pan- Named a fter the Greek God of the wild, it is about 20km in diameter and its mass is 11x 10 15th lbs. Saturn is at a distance of 83,000 miles and has an orbital period around Saturn is 13.8 hours. Pan was discovered in 1990 by the Voyager team. A Pan orbit within the Encke Gap which is located in the Saturn’s A ring. The Encke Gap is a space in the A ring that helps Pan to orbit around Saturn. Helene- named after Greek goddess Helene popularly known as Helene of Troy and the name means torch. Helene’s moon is an irregular shape in body and is measured about36 x 32 x 30 km in diameter. The moon orbits Saturn at 234,500 in distance and its mass is 8x 10by 17. The surface materials are composed of particularly dark and organic rich mater and condense ices. Helene was discovered by P. Laques and J. Leacheus in the year 1990. Dione- Named after  Greek goddess Dione and the mother for Aphrodite she was describe as a temple associate. Dione is about 1,118km is diameter and has a density of 1.43gm/cm the rest is ice. The temperature is extremely cold and the distance from Saturn is 377,400 km, and includes crater area that measure about 100 km in diameter. Dione was discovered in 1684 by Giovanni Cassini. Rhea- Named after the god of fruitfulness the mother of Poseidon. Rhea is far away from and the second largest moon of Saturn. It is 1,528 km in size, its distance from the sun is 527,040 and it mass is2.31 x 10 sub 21 kg. Rhea’s temperature is cold like Dione and only one side of its surface faces Saturn. The surface of Rhea is a mixture of ice and rock similar to a frozen dirty snowball. Dione was discovered in 1672 by Giovanni Cassini. Mimas- Named after the Greek god giant of war. It looks like a bull’s eye by viewing in space. The surface of is covered with impact craters due to shock waves that happens on the moon which measure is size of about 40 kg . It is also very low in density and is composed of mostly water with small amounts of rock. The distance from Saturn is 185,520km, the period of orbit around Saturn is 22.6 hrs and its mass is 3.81 x 10 sub 19kg. The temperature of Mimas is minus 344 degrees Fahrenheit. It was discovered by Williams Herschel in 1789. Enceladus- Named the god that was responsible for tremors and volcanoes, and he was considered the leader of the giants. Distance from the Saturn is 237,378 km, about 512 x 494Ãâ€"489 km in diameter, its mass id 1.2 x 10 sub 20 kg. The period Encelasus orbit around Saturn is 32.8 hours. It is also covered in water ice and is about -330 degrees Fahrenheit. It also reflects the sunlight. It was di scovered by Williams Herschel in 1789. Titan- Named after group Greek gods who ruled the cosmos. Titan is largest of the Saturn’s moon and is the most Earthlike of its kind; it looks a lot like a frozen version of the plant earth. The surface is very cold; it has a temperature of -290 degrees Fahrenheit and has a thick atmosphere but does not hold gravity well. Titan’s atmosphere has an altitude 10 times higher than or nearly 600 km into space as oppose to the earth. According to a space expedition in 1980 by the Voyager 1Titan showed to only have air pressure of one and a half at sea level and four times as dense of the earth. Titan has chemical readings is mostly gas about 95% nitrogen and 5% methane, which are two chemicals that are present in earth’s surface. Nitrogen help produces this thick smog like cloud that can hold water and  produces rain. With the help of methane which is a gas allows the cloud s rain to produce or rain down liquids similar to gasoline. Titan orbits Saturn 1.2 million km or 745,000 miles it take16 days to make complete circle. The radius is 2,575 km and 112 km in diameter. The Greek mythology of how the naming group of Titans , hence thus the naming of the moons came about, the Titans devoured the limbs of Dionysus, the son of Zeus (the god of thunder and war) was intended to have dominion over the world. Zeus was so angry he struck the titans with lighting and the fire burned them to ashes. The moons of Saturn are too numerous to number, just like the story of the Titans. They all have their own characteristics, this paper only names a few, here are the rest: Aegean, Aegir, Albiorix, Anthe, Benhionn, Bergeimir, Calypso, Dapjnis, Epimetheus, Erriapus, Farbauti, Fenrir, Fornjot, Greip, Hati, Hyperion, Hyrrokkin, Lapetus, Lijraq, Janus, Jamsaxa, Kari, Kiviug, Loge, Methone, Mundifari, Narvi, Paaliaq, Pallene, Phoebe, Polydueces, Siamaq, Skadi, Skoll, Suttung, Tarqeq, Telesto, Tethys, Thrym, Ymir. The names of these moons will continue to grow as new moons are discovered. The moons will begin the naming process which astronomer gives each moon a temporary name that will follow this format S/2011-S1. The first S stands for Saturn and the second S after the stands for its satellite or location in space. Then the names are assigning by the International Astronomical Union. In conclusion, with the study of the moons of Saturn we learned that some range very large in size. We also learned the amount of time it takes each moon s to orbit Saturn. The time varies amongst the moon of Saturn. The all of the temperature each of the moons are too cold for human life to be sustained, and the surfaces of each one of the moons are somewhat similar; with the exception of the moon Titan. During the study of the Titan moons the discovery of the similarities between the planet Earth and Titan’s atmosphere. The naming of the moons came from Greek mythology and the history of the Greek gods were interesting the in its own way. Finally, scientists are still discover ing new moons in Saturn’s atmosphere, as of today there are only 53 moons officially named; who knows how many more are lurking out there. References The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2011 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Pan-ast.html Hatzitsinidou, Evangelia. (2005-2011). Greek-Gods.Info Gods and Goddess of Ancient Greece. October 26,2011, http://www.greek-gods.info/greek-mythology/a.php Munsell,Kirk. (2011). Cassini Solstice Misson. November 23, 2011, http://www.jpl.nasa.gov./science/mooms

Being A Woman Is Hard - 1836 Words

Being a woman is hard this times. Violet, an eleven-year old girl, walked home with her friends after a long afternoon doing homework at her best friend house, when a group of three boys in bicycles passed touching their butts and kept pedaling as if was the most normal thing to do. Violet didn’t talk about this to her parents because from what she’s heard, this happens to a lot of women and they should get used to it. she didn’t speak up when it happened again in a haunted house in her vacation trip or when she walked outside home and heard guys â€Å"compliments† about her physical look. No. She accepted it and live with it for the rest of her life. On the other side, Thomas, a fifteen-year old and his other two friends decide to go to play†¦show more content†¦Devor states, â€Å"Femininity must be expressed through modes of dress, movement, speech, and action which communicate weakness, dependency, ineffectualness, availability for sexual or emotional service, and sensitivity to the needs of others† (476). Society creates this stereotypes that all women should follow; to be more feminine, clean the kitchen, take care of the kids and not work because your husband is the one in charge of the house. Women should like these because in societies eye is the only way they could get a partner, and men see these characteristics as attractive. Women are expected to act like a â€Å"Lady†. According to Girl, by Jamaica Kincaid, â€Å"Always eat your food in such a way that it won’t turn someone else’s stomach; on Sundays try to walk like a lady and not like the slut you are so bent on becoming† (469). 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