Tuesday, October 29, 2019

Bibliography on Human Impact on Global Warming Annotated

On Human Impact on Global Warming - Annotated Bibliography Example By observing various communities in the ‘Land Down Under,’ the researchers came to draw the conclusion that the practices of the people are pro-environment, and in fact these people organize activities that aim to instill environmentalism in their neighborhoods. Bradshaw, C. J., Sodhi, N. S., & Brook, B. W. (2008). Tropical turmoil: a biodiversity tragedy in progress. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, (7) 2, 79-87. Retrieved from http://www.frontiersinecology.org/current_issue/bradshaw.pdf The review explained how the world has lost the battle of preserving its tropical forests. It further denoted the habitat loss and the potentiality of disaster it has on biodiversity and human health. The locales of the study were the rain forests, savannas and mangroves in select regions across the globe. It inferred that the loss and degradation of essential ecosystem functions (e.g. pollination, carbon sequestration, water cycling) and services (eg. flood mitigation, topsoil retention, non-timber forest products) are harming billions of people living in tropical countries, and that poor governance and corruption are some of the key socioeconomic threats to tropical biodiversity conservation Butler, R. A., & Laurance, W. F. (2008). New strategies for conserving tropical forests. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, (23) 9, 469-472. Retrieved from http://www.ecology.ethz.ch/ education/Resilience_Stuff/Butler_and_Laurance_2008.pdf The scholarly work focused on how to combat the rapid deforestation rates by setting as an example the practices of large transnational corporations. Utilizing the data provided by the United Nations Population Division, it noted the severe conditions of the tropical forests in Latin America, Africa and Asia and... This study elucidated how poor nations contribute to the worldwide degradation of the environment and pollution. It remarked that while wealthy nations have relatively large industries, some countries in the Third World also operate manufacturing sites that are hazardous to the environment and deplete finite resources, which can be considered as exemplifications of capitalism. The authors also included the everyday practices of the rural folks in destroying forests and polluting the rivers and other bodies of water. The collaborative venture of these environmentalists underscored how the population and wealth of nations positively correlated with the level of carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere. They concluded that rich nations, where industrialization and urbanization are concentrated, have tremendous impacts to the natural environment than that of the poor ones. The output of the study was a stochastic version of the Impact = Population-Affluence-Technology (IPAT) model to accurately estimate the effects of population, affluence, and technology on national CO2 emissions.Their research surveyed a sample of more than one thousand people across the United States and found out that 75% of them considers themselves as ‘environmentalists.’ They purported the role of popular culture in the advent of Environmental America that has begun since the 1960’s. The book outlined the various human activities that gradually altered the face of the planet. It also implicated the society on its role in environmental degradation.

Sunday, October 27, 2019

How to Determine Face Shape

How to Determine Face Shape How to determine Face Shape. Face Shape Calculator. What ismyface shape? All people have one of 7  basic face shapes: round, square, long (or â€Å"oblong†), triangle or pear, heart or inverted triangle, diamond or oval  shaped faces. With respect to  beauty, the  face shape  plays a part.And though many people may not have thought about the  shape of their face, there are many whose faces have characteristics they do not love. Knowing your face shape  can help you make confident and informed decisions about many things,  hairstyles, spectacles  included. To figure it out, pull or comb your hair completely away from your face.Now,you’ll need a ruler or a tape measure. Be sure to write down the numbers for each step: Start with the forehead. Measure across your  forehead  at the widest point. Move on the cheeks. Measure the widest length across your  cheekbones. Now on to the jaw. Measure your jawline at its widest point. Finally, measure the length of your face.Place the ruler at the top of your forehead at your hairline and measure to your chin. Your ratio will either be 1 (your width) to 1 1/2 (your length) or 1 to 1 or 1 to 2. Heart Shaped Face Heart-shaped faces  are wider at the forehead and gently narrow down at the jawline.Thechin may be  pointed  in this  face shape. This shape is also known as the â€Å"inverted-triangle.† Square Shaped Face You have  square face  if your face has the following measurements: The width of your forehead, cheekbones, and jaw are equal. The facehas sharp, angular features including a sharp jawline. (Ifthefeatures are soft and rounded, you are likely a â€Å"round face shape.†) The facecross ratio is 1 to 1 (Length = Width) or 1 to 1 1/2. Round Shaped Face You have a classic  round face  if you fit the following: The width of your forehead, cheekbones, and jaw are equal Thejaw is slightly rounded as opposed to angular. The round face hassoft features in general. The  difference between a round face and a square face  (which also measures the same across as long) lies in the angles.  Square faces  have strong, angular features, whereas around face  has soft features. The  facecross ratio  is 1 to 1 (length = width). Diamond Shaped Face You have a  diamond face  if you are widest at your cheekbones, and your jawline and forehead are the same length (but still narrower than your cheeks). Long Shaped Face (Oblong Shaped Face) Long face shapes  are longer than they are wide. Ifthe length to the width of the faceis more than 1 1/2, then you fall into this face shape zone. Oval Shaped Face The length is equal to one and a half times width. Triangle Face Shape Which is the best Face Shape? How does Face Shape correlate with Looks Beauty? In the  beauty  industry, whether it’s  makeup,  hair  or even  clothing being discussed,  face shape  plays a very important part. Face Shapes can play an important role in how both  men women look. Best Face Shape For Men There is a large percentage ofmenwho have a  square  face shape, and it is the  most ideal and desired shape  to work with. The angular jaw line, well defined chin, clefted chin, all give rise to the  manly faceas we know it.Therefore, when it comes to  haircuts and beards, the goal is to square off the face, while taking into consideration any imperfections and how to camouflage them. Best Face Shape For Women Face Shape  plays a very important role in making women appear feminine (What Makes  Beautiful Women?). The  oval face  is considered the  best facial shape for women. An  oval face  can get away with almost any  haircut and jewelry,  because of its balanced proportions. How to Alter / Accentuate your Face Shape Make it Ideal Perfect Shaped? Can you Shape your Face Shape? 1) Hairstyles Round Face Try  hairstyles  that fall just  below the chin, like the long bob, or soft, adapted layers that are  shoulder length. Avoid  one length, blunt cuts  like theclassic bob-cut. Square Face Experiment with curls, or long, sleek  haircuts  with layers that begin from the jawline and downward. Avoid  blunt-cut bangs  and  one-length bob hairstyles,  which highlight your angular jaw rather than downplay it. Oval Face An  oval face shape  can usually sustain any sort of  haircut. Find your best feature and highlight it with your hairstyle. Great bone structure? Consider an angular bob that complements your chin.Gorgeous eyes?  Blunt or side-swept bangs will draw attention there. Heart Face Draw attention away from the chin with side swept bangs or brow-skimming bangs. Avoid choppy layers thatmake the chin prominent. Triangular Face Short haircuts  with a lot of volume are ideal for triangular faces. You can also choose along cut, as long as it hits at your collarbone or lower. Diamond Face Try to create  width at the forehead  with bangs, and balance it out with layers that start at the  chin. Long Face Brow-skimming, side swept bangs or chin-length bobs are ideal for creating the illusion of width. Curls and waves also work well when adding width. Keep  haircuts short, never long because they tend to drag down the face. 2) Spectacles Sunglasses for Face Shapes Round Face To make around face  appear thinner and longer, try  angular narrow eyeglass frames  to lengthen the face, a clearbridgethat widens the eyes, and  frames  that are  wider  than they are deep, such as a  rectangular shape. Oval Face To keep the  oval face’s  natural balance, look for  eyeglass frames  that are as wide as (or wider than) the broadest part of the face, or  walnut-shaped frames  that are not too deep or too narrow. Oblong Face To make an  oblong face  appear shorter and more balanced,  try frames that have more depth than width, decorative or contrasting temples that add width to the face, or a low bridge to shorten the nose. Diamond Face This is the  rarest face shape. To highlight the eyes and soften the cheekbones, try  frames  that have detailing or distinctive brow lines, or try  rimless framesoroval and cat-eye shapes. Square Face To make a square face look longer and soften the angles, try  narrow frame styles, frames that have more width than depth, and  narrow ovals. Triangular Face To add width and emphasize the narrow upper third of the  face, try  frames  that are heavily accented with color and detailing on the top half or cat-eye shapes. 3) Change Face Shape Through Cosmetic Surgery A)  Botox For Masseter Hypertrophy  Masseter muscle reduction  is a procedure often requested by Asian ethnicities and now very commonly in  India. The Masster is a muscle in the jaw area an  enlarged masseter muscle  leads to formation of a  square shaped masculine appearing face in women. The use of  botulinum toxin  can effectively  treat the masseter hypertrophy, reduce and change the shape of the face predictably  (make the face and the jawline slim),  without any unwanted surgical trauma and complications. To read more on how  Botox  works, read this blogpost:https://debrajshome.wordpress.com/2012/03/03/best-botox-injections-in-mumbai-india/ B) Fillers to Augment Cheeks Chins Dermal Filler Injections  like  Juvederm Voluma  play an important role in  adding volume  where necessary, easily, painlessly, without surgery. So, the  chin can be augmented  or the cheeks, as necessary. C) Use of Chin Implants to elongate the face. Works in  diamond shaped oblong faces  to make them oval, by adding  width at the chin area. This also markedly improves  profile pictures. D) Use of Cheek Implants to widen Mid-Face Area Works in  oblong faces, to add  width to the cheeks  and balance the face. E)  VASER Liposuction Works in  round faces  to  reduce the increased fat  and make the jawline chin more defined and angular. Also,  removes the double chin. F) Orthognathic Surgery Complex Maxillo-Facial Surgery in which the bones of the face are cut re-arranged to change facial shape. In summary, working out your  face shape type  can be the first step in evaluating many things:  which hairstyles will suit you, which spectacles sunglasses will look good on you, how you should apply makeup, etc. In fact,  understanding your face shape  is the first step in understanding you. Once you know your face shape, you can rectify the deficiencies aim for the  best face shape  by visually changing your face shape via hairstyles, makeup, glasses or even by using  cosmetic surgery procedures.

Friday, October 25, 2019

Red Sky At Morning: Stepping Into Adulthood Essay -- essays research

Red Sky At Morning by Richard Bradford, is a coming of age novel that illustrates the maturing of a young man. In the summer of 1944, Frank Arnold, a wealthy shipbuilder in Mobile, Alabama, receives his volunteer commission in the U.S. Navy. He moves his wife, Ann, and seventeen-year-old son, Josh, to the family's summer home in the village of Corazon Sagrado, high in the New Mexico mountains. Mrs. Arnold finds it impossible to cope with the quality of life in the largely Hispanic village. Josh, more the son of his father than his mother, becomes an integral member of the Sagrado community, forging friendships with classmates at Helen De Crispin school, with the town's resident artist, with Chango Lopez--macho bully turned model student--and with Amadeo and Excilda Montoya, the couple hired by his father to care for their house. Josh narrates the story of his fateful year in Sagrado and reveals the events and people who influence his progress to maturity. Josh matures throughout the book into a young man who learns the understanding of change, responsibility, and duty. Josh stays strong through the changes he goes through and it helps him mature into the man he becomes. When his family moves to Sagrado he makes new friends and adapts well to the new environment he is put into. Josh stays open-minded when making friends at school. He gets to know many different kings of people. Unlike his mother he doesn’t judge people by where they live or their racial background. His mothe...

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs on and Off the Organizational Stage*

Leaders, Managers, Entrepreneurs On and Off the Organizational Stage* Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff My purpose is to tell of bodies which have been transformed into shapes of different kinds. You heavenly powers, sinee you were responsible for those changes, as for all else, look favourably on my attempts, and spin an unbroken thread of verse, from the earliest beginnings of the world, down to my own times.Ovid: Metamorphoses Abstract Barbara CzarniawsicaJoerges Department of Business Administration, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Roif Woiff Gothenburg Research Institute at the School of Economics and Legal Science, Gothenburg, Sweden This paper explores three crucial roles of the organizational theatre: managers, leaders and entrepreneurs. Changing fashion in the organizational theory debate as well as in organizational practice puts different roles in focus at different times.Organization theory should, accordingly, shift its attention toward studying the contexts in which a given role acquires dominance, in place of an unreflective discussion of the relative functional advantages of each of them. This paper argues that none of the three will ever go out of fashion, as they can be seen as enactments of archetypes, embodying the different fears and hopes of those who create organizations by their daily performance.Leadership is seen as symbolic performance, expressing the hope of control over destiny; management as the activity of introducing order by coordinating flows of things and people towards collective action, and entrepreneurship as the making of entire new worlds. The sociohistorical context needs to be considered as the stage-set wherein these roles gain prominence. Introduction Organization Studies 1991, 12/4: 529-546  © 1991 EGOS 0170-8406/91 0012-0022 $2. 00 Leaders are in, managers are out, entrepreneurs are waiting in the corridor.What orders their appearances and disappearances? In an attempt to answer this question, we propose to an alyze all three roles, not in terms of organizational effectiveness, but as symbolic expressions of collective hopes and fears, played out (‘performed') on the organizational stage. Leaders, managers and entrepreneurs are supposed to serve certain functions in organizations — functions which are ascribed to so-called executive positions. The term ‘executive' comes from the times when managers were supposed to execute the owners' will.The separation of ownership and control (Chandler 1977) complicated this simple relationship, opening the way for discussions on the desired form of the executive role. This debate does not take place in a vacuum; it accompanies, reflects and influences changes in organizational practices and theories. Just which functions and in what configuration changes, both with theories and with time, because the definition of what executive functions should entail changes in line with master-ideas, whose time comes and goes (Czarniawska-Joerges and Joerges 1990).These, in turn, are related to 530 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff broader changes in the cultural context of organizing (Czarniawska 1986). An ambition to tackle the issues of context leads researchers to obviously relevant aspects such as changes in business cycles or changes in political climate. A study of these can of course, if treated with devotion, completely fill more than one research career, and yet there always remains something unanswered, a phenomenon unexplained, of a kind that conventional organization studies are poorly equipped to grasp.Perhaps the theatre metaphor (Mangham and Overington 1986; Czarniawska-Joerges 1992) would help in describing those ephemeral phenomena. What leads to a change in repertoire of a theatre, a replacement of comedy by tragedy, Shakespeare by Pinter? It is the decision of the management, the wishes of the primadonnas, the current cultural fashion, the economic exigencies — and much more. In the organiza tional theatre, the plays performed vary from one season to another, from one director to another, but the general repertoire seems to be quite traditional, even if it contains both tragedy, comedy and drama.It might be that the actual playwright is our ‘collective unconscious', to use Jung's term (1934); that in our attitudes toward the central organizational roles, i. e. leaders, managers and entrepreneurs we act out archetypes. This phenomenon escapes the analysts' attention because we are used to looking for articulation of archetypes in different spheres — in myths and legends (Hogenson 1987). In this discussion, we are dealing with ‘archetypes of personalities' rather than ‘archetypes of transformation' (Jung 1934/1959: 322).The latter are ‘typical situations, places, ways and means' according to Jung (p. 322), or what some would call ‘scripts' (Mandler 1984). The archetypes of personalities are ‘universal, idealized, larger-than-life symbols that contain the essence of human experience and that help individuals develop an emotionally satisfying picture of the world' (Krefting and Frost 1986: 164). In other words, we argue that the central organizational roles represent wishes and fears shared by organizational collectives; they are symbols which help to ascribe meaning to organizational events. It always seems to us as if meaning — compared with life — were the younger event, because we assume, with some justification, that we assign it of ourselves, and because we believe, equally rightly no doubt, that the great world can get along without being interpreted. But how do we assign meaning? From what source, in the last analysis, do we derive meaning? The forms we use for assigning meaning are historical categories that reach back into the mist of time — a fact we do not take sufficiently into account. (Jung 1934/1959: 317) In what follows we shall try to show that the continuing debate on t hose roles reaches indeed ‘back into the mists of time', and although we limit ourselves to a relatively short span of time there are plenty of traces pointing further back. Next, we shall attempt to demonstrate that the three roles are complementary in the sense that they answer different needs or fears of the collective unconscious. In this sense, no role is ever Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 53I out'; they all have their place in our collective consciousness, even if we at times tire of one and become fascinated with another. To bring out the core of these archetypes we shall look for their equivalents in literature and theatre, the traditional fields of symbolic expression. In doing so, we continue and extend the tradition of symbolic interpretation of executive roles (see e. g. Frost and Egri, forthcoming; Gustafsson 1984, 1985; Kets de Vries 1989, 1990a, 1990b; Westley and Mintzberg 1989). LeadersIn 1948, Robert Stodgill attempted to make a list of traits r esponsible for leaders' success, starting with a review by Charles Bird from 1940, which listed 79 traits important for successful leadership, as mentioned in 20 works reviewed. Stodgill updated the list to about 100 traits while observing that different authors did not agree on their importance. When he returned to the topic 26 years later in his book Handbook of Leadership, the number of leadership studies reviewed exceeded 3000 (Stogdill 1974).During the 1960s, the concept of organizational leadership began to shift from persons to behavioural styles and then toward the situational factors. Ghiseili (1963), Fiedler (1964), Bass (1960), and Umanski (1967) were among the best known authors who studied leadership and recommended that the leaders should begin by diagnosing the context of their action and should then act accordingly. By the 1970s, the interest in leaders diminished. There were at least two reasons.One was that, after three decades, researchersfinallyarrived at a conti ngency theory which proclaimed that leaders' success depends on the fit between their personalities (thus incorporating the trait theory), the type of action they choose (the style theory, with its origins in the seminal study by Lewin et al. 1939), and the situation (e. g. Fiedler 1964). This achievement, impressive at the time, was met with some derision twenty years later, when the waves of fashion came and went several times.Wildavsky's comments summarize it very well: ‘Unfortunately, multiplying traits of leaders, times types of followers, times samples of situations, times group interactions has led to more variety than anyone can manage. ‘ (Wildavsky 1984: 18) Another, and probably more important reason for abandoning the role of leadership was political frustration at the end of the 1960s. The young Americans saw their favourite leaders killed; the young French decided to remove their old, unpopular leaders themselves. McClelland's article on ‘Two faces of power' (1970) is a vivid example of anxieties suffered by the older generation in the U.S. when the youth rejected the traditional authority and the conventional career paths. According to this study, the graduates of Harvard and other schools did not want to be leaders anymore, seeing a dark face of power even behind the innocent organizational titles. 532 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff Managers Thus in the 1970s, charismatic leaders were distinctly out of fashion, and yet there was still a need for some sort of authority expression in organizations. The unpretentious ‘managers' took the place of leaders.However, ‘Fayol's fifty year old description of managerial work was no longer of use', observed Mintzberg (1971) in an early report from his famous study of the tasks of managers. A new approach was needed and the most typical model for a manager of the 1970s was perhaps Drucker's (1970) ‘effective executive'. The effective executives had no charisma what soever. The organizational reality pushed them towards ineffectiveness. Their time belonged to everybody else. They were forced to focus on operational exigencies to the detriment of reflection and strategic thinking.They were blinded by the walls of organizations, cutting off the worid outside. They were dependent on what other people did or did not do. To all these harassed people, Drucker formulated a message — a list of practices allowing for an increase in effectiveness, a set of pragmatic prescriptions on how to manage one's time, how to use accessible resources and how to make decisions (Drucker 1970). Problem-solving capacities were more important than social skills and decision-making ability conquered charisma, at least for a while.But power was again noticed, lurking behind this depersonalized, institutional facade. It has been said that the management-oriented researchers, like the early rationalist organization theorists, ‘. . . believed mankind had to shif t from the government of men to the administration of things, as their precursor Saint-Simon had claimed; and they felt they were achieving their aims by emphasizing financial stimuli and technical controls instead of human leadership. The delusion that they had suppressed power relationships prevented them from understanding the true nature of their own actions. ‘ (Crozier 1964: 146)In a sense, this is the same accusation as the one formulated eariier against the leaders, but with a different rationale behind it. While leaders did not understand the true nature of their actions, blinded by power, the managers were blinded by an illusion that they were free from power. This issue appears in the debate on both sides, pro-leaders and promanagers. The advocates of leadership say that there is so much power in organizations that it must be officially recognized, whereas the defenders of management tend to say that there are enough power games in organizations without giving them a n official status.To leave this circle, let us introduce a third voice. Entrepreneurs The story goes that long before there were any leaders or managers in the companies, there were entrepreneurs. These entrepreneurs created, in fact, the world of business organizations as we know them today, employ- Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 533 ing not so much charisma or intellectual capacities as something else: willpower. Let us thus make an excursion ‘into the mists of time'. In 1921, Josef Schumpeter published an article on the Unternehmer — the entrepreneur.In this not very well known article, he explored the character of the business company from a historical point of view, the function of the entrepreneur and finally the ‘modern' entrepreneur. Schumpeter saw the origins and functioning of companies as being based on two correlated facts: on the one hand, the property rights over the means and results of production; and, on the other, what he called a â €˜business mentality'. The latter led to the development of production techniques, a capitalist economic calculation and market communication structures.The combination of this capitalist mentality and capitalist property rights produced business companies, which became crucial elements of the contemporary cultures, but even more — they were, without doubt, ‘the basis for and the condition of such cultures' (Schumpeter 1921: 47). Thus, a given type of motivational force creates a given type of organization, which results in a given type of culture that, in turn, encourages such motivational forces and permits such organizations. When analyzing the 18th century, one can see entrepreneurs functioning both as employers and owners of capital.Schumpeter, however, had already noticed that these functions can be and are different, and that in modern companies one encounters two different types of people: managers and entrepreneurs. Management, according to Schumpeter, is a function consisting of control, of guaranteeing discipline and introducing order; a function requiring considerable daily, bureaucratic work. This function, necessary as it is, does not embody what is really characteristic of the capitalist economy. The importance of the entrepreneur is not the management of an existing company but the creation of such a company.Schumpeter perceived entrepreneurship as a specific case of social leadership. Such ‘social leaders' are not outstanding in their task abilities, but in their willpower. This willpower can be translated into contemporary language as ‘initiative', but, in this case, not an initiative of thought (for example, conception of new ideas), but an initiative of action. The core of entrepreneurial motivation is similar to that of leaders, but entrepreneurship mainly fits contexts which are new and cannot be dealt with by means of experience or routine.Entrepreneurship is leadership in exceptional situations and, we might add, is most likely to entail the creation of such situations. Schumpeter stressed repeatedly that entrepreneurship is never a matter of individuals only. It is a phenomenon which has to be analyzed and identified within a complex conglomerate of factors. In saying this, interestingly enough, Schumpeter seemed to anticipate the growing interest in what Mintzberg (1983) calls ‘configurations': complex, dynamic contexts where simple contingencies are not of much use. 34 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff This does not mean that one should neglect other functions. Any economy, at any time, is performing on the basis of existing experiences and routines. Therefore, there will always be a function which has to do with the supervision of these processes (and which we call ‘management'). Management, or the routine behaviour in production and business, enables economies to deliver promptly and act in accordance with the requirements of systems which are highly rational and therefore predictable.On the macro-level, though, many processes constantly change their situational equilibrium. There is a continuous growth of population and the means of production. There are also non-economic developments which are changing the economy: social developments, political influences, and so on. On the micro-level, the equilibrium ceases to exist when individuals see new possibilities, and strive to implement the innovations they have in mind. The concurrence of macro- and microchanges creates room for entrepreneurs.Paraphrasing Schumpeter's ideas in social constructionist terms, one can say that entrepreneurs are people who are the first to see a crack or aflawin a social construction of economic reality, and to interpret it as an opportunity to actualize their ideas of what the world should look like. As long as this vision is not shared by others, they have to live with an individually constructed reality, which is a heavy burden to bear. What seem to be anecdotal stories of mad inventors and innovators might be actually quite true, in the sense that the unsuccessful inventors are people whose reality did not become socially confirmed.Those who succeeded, though, are the makers of our worlds. Leadership Revisited The neo-conservatism of the 1980s brought to Europe, from beyond the ocean, various nostalgic notions such as ‘free market' and ‘leadership' (as opposed to ‘negotiated economies' and ‘codetermination', the keywords of the 1970s). As far as leadership was concerned, organization theory did not go far beyond Stogdill: offering many definitions, many brands of leadership and varying recipes for success (see e. g. Maccoby 1981; Bass 1985; Bennis and Nanus 1985).But it is ‘charisma' and ‘visions' that count most. Bernard Bass asks dramatically: ‘What does Lee Iacocca have that many other executives lack? Charisma. What would have happened to Chrysler without him? It probably would have gone bankr upt. ‘ (Bass 1984: 26) To which Robert B. Reich answers: ‘Many Americans would prefer to think that Lee Iacocca single-handedly saved Chrysler from bankruptcy than to accept the real story: a large team of people with diverse backgrounds and interests joined together to rescue the ailing company. ‘ (Reich 1987: 82)Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 535 Reich points out that public opinion would like to see lacocca as an entrepreneur, a solitary world-maker, rather than a leader who represents a team of people joined in a common effort. His critique aims at the public veneration of world-makers, based on nothing more than their own claim to fame. What is interesting to us, however, is the fact that Reich stresses the difference between the entrepreneurs as solitary worldmakers and leaders who actually lead other people toward a common vision.It has been repeatedly stressed, especially in analyses of political leadership, that leaders express and embody the wishes of their followers rather than impose those of their own. The romanticizing tradition, which Reich criticizes, tends to equip the heroes of the day with the capacities of leaders, entrepreneurs and managers all rolled into one, where they lead the masses to worlds of their own making, waiting for nature to cooperate. In practice, however, not only should the three roles be divided among different people, but even their performance should be brought much closer to reality.If one talks to people employed by organizations led by charismatic leaders, one discovers that they learn about their leaders' visions from the mass media (sometimes from internal videotapes) and that leaders themselves, busy in the TV studio, only have a vague idea of what is happening in their organizations (Schwartz 1989). Organizations are run with the help of Standard Operating Procedures — of which culture is perhaps the most powerful — and impersonal control processes, the latter initiat ed and fed by many different actors, none of whom accepts responsibility for the actual course of events.The remaining pockets of autonomy are filled with individual creativity and self-control which rarely comes from the leaders (on leaders' necessary distance from organizational action, see Brunsson 1989). So, what is leadership all about? In 1978, at the dawn of the new leadership era, a curious book was published, entitled Leadership: Where else can we go? (edited by McCall and Lombardo), which included contributions from the greatest authorities in the field (Jeffrey Pfeffer, Karl Weick, Louis Pondy). The articles challenged all the conventional visions of leadership and came up with new images.The most famous of these was perhaps Pfeffer's article ‘The ambiguity of leadership'. Pfeffer stated that there was not enough evidence to indicate ‘either the effect of leadership or, more significantly, the conditions under which leadership might be expected to have more or less impact on organizational outcomes' (Pfeffer 1977/1978: 23). Leaders serve as symbols representing the personal causation of social events. Such personal attribution of causality is a confirmation of the feasibility to control events, one of the most important stakes in human beings' fight against destiny. Occupants of leadership positions come to assume symbolic value, and the attribution of causality to those positions serves to reinforce the organizational construction of meaning that provides the appearance of simplicity and controllability. ‘ (Pfeffer 1977/1978: 29) 536 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff Creating this ‘illusion of control' over fate (Brunsson 1989; Czarniawska 1985) lies at the core of leaders' symbolic performance. Leadership should be seen as a political, symbolic process and understood and evaluated in this perspective.While accepting this postulate, we propose to extend the symbolic perspective to the two other roles: entrepreneurs and managers. Entrepreneurship Reconsidered The late 1980s saw a revival of a long forgotten role: that of the entrepreneur, which, for a while, seemed to be petrified in one epoch: that of early capitalism. The contemporary version of this role, embedded into monetary supply-side capitalism, is well described by Kaplan: ‘To get things done through individuals striking out on their own' (1987: 86). The role is ven better understood when contrasted with that of ‘drones' (Reich 1987), that is, those who keep the empires and the big conglomerates going. Entrepreneurs, in the 1990s as in the 1880s, create new social and organizational realities. They work against the existing social structure, not by opposing it by e. g. political means, but by behaving as if the existing structure did not exist. By ignoring the established ways of thinking and action, they make dreams come true. Drones are then the carriers of entrepreneurial ideas. ‘Entrepreneurs' and ‘drones' ali ke represent two extreme personalities, born by two extreme social realities.Today's societal and economic structures tend to moderate both. On the one hand, revolutionary innovation became complex and inordinately costly; on the other, the everyday running of empires requires innovation and social change. Also, the individualism of entrepreneurship contrasts with the realities of everyday life and family structures, at least in the western industrialized part of the globe where we live and work. The freedom for acting out male dreams is curbed by women's emancipation, followed by changing division of work at home, and women's attempts to acquire managerial positions.The dual career problems and ‘glass ceilings' discovered by women in the corporate context leads to more and more women opening small companies of their own. A growing proportion of entrepreneurial businesses in Europe and Africa have been established by women. History will show whether these new entrepreneurs wil l also fall into the luring trap of empire building supported by traditional economic success criteria, or whether they will redefine entrepreneurship by tying it to different archetypes. IVIanagement Defended ‘. . . he executive leader is not a leader of men only but of something we are learning to call the total situation. This includes facts, present and potential aims Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 537 and purposes of men. Out of a welter of fact, experience, desires, aims, the leader must find the unifying thread. He must see a whole, not a mere kaleidoscope of pieces. He must sec the relation between all the different factors in a situation. ‘ (Follet 1949: 51) It was with these words that, as early as the 1940s, Mary Parker Follet tried to defend the need for management — rather than just for leadership.In the 1970s, Zaleznik launched the insightful thesis that while leaders are needed in times of crisis and change, managers represent the every day rationality of welfare and affluence (Zaleznik 1977; see also Czarniawska-Joerges 1989). Machiavelli, it seems, wrote for managers and not for leaders. Leaders ‘sometimes react to mundane work as to an affliction' (Zaleznik 1977: 201). ‘They may work in organizations, but they never belong to them' (1977: 205). The 1980s brought in a heavier assault: managers lacked not only leadership but entrepreneurship as well.Always a gallant knight of management, Peter Drucker asserts that they are all the same: ‘Management is the new technology (rather than any specific new science or invention) that is making the American economy into an entrepreneurial economy (. . . ) Entrepreneurship requires above all application of the basic concepts, the basic techne, of management to new problems and new opportunities. ‘ (Drucker 1985: 17) The concept of ‘intrapreneurship' (Pinchot 1985) is, in fact, the most extreme attempt to join management and entrepreneurship in the service of large organizations.Roger Kaplan comments drily: ‘For society to work, you need more than robust little capitalists' (Kaplan 1987: 89). Managers stand for rationality, as Zaleznik rightly pointed out, and they have not disappeared. As late as 1986, Hales asked again ‘what do they do? ‘ on his way to ‘clarification and synthesis between managers' behaviour and the management function' (Hales 1986: 112). We shall now look at all three from a symbolic perspective only. In this endeavour, we shall look for help in archetypical personages known from belles lettres. This is, however, an illustratory device, and is arbitrary in character.The readers are encouraged to look for other images or metaphors which render explicit that which the archetypes project into perceptions of executive roles as designed by both the actors and their audience. Why Are Leaders So Attractive? As we see it, the most appropriate figure representing the leader's role is that of Moses. It embraces, for example, the three leadership archetypes distinguished by Frost and Egri (forthcoming): The Warrior, the Healer and the Magician. A perceptive analysis of Moses' political leadership, rendered by Wildavsky (1984), provides a good example of what is expected of a leader.It took Moses 40 years to take the Jews to their land, although 40 days would have been enough, but he had everything 538 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff that a leader should have: a visioti, a will to lead, atid a cotitact with God. We do not intend to follow Wildavsky's intricate reasoning. For present purposes, it suffices to notice that Moses represents the epitome of male and paternalistic leadership (a nursing father, Wildavsky calls him, although his nursing methods were rather cruel). His fate also indicates the primarily symbolic role of the leader: he never reached the Promised Land, he was not needed there.The problem with Moseses is, that they have a tendency to sacrific e people in the name of obscure external sources of legitimacy. Additionally, common sense and good organization is not their speciality. Moseses are good in crises, but otherwise they are not the most efficient. In everyday life one contacts a manager of a travel agency to go to Israel. Does it mean that leaders are not responsible for what happens, because they do not actually cause it? Edelman answers this question in the following way: ‘They do identify themselves with particular courses of action and inaction and so deserve responsibility for them.But the assumption that leaders have caused the events for which they take responsibility is reductionist because it ignores the consequences of historical developments, material conditions, and interpretations of those conditions. Except as minor elements of a complex transaction, leaders cannot provide security or bring about change. ‘ (1988: 65) An opposite type of leadership failure is the refusal to perform according to a script expected in given conditions. Maybe it is actually the other side of the same coin, that is, an erroneous belief on the part of the leader that he or she is truly a causative factor.What is then perceived as successful leadership, if it is not the act of bringing about a change? It is a dramatic performance which fulfils the expectations of both audience and co-actors, while retaining contradictions in the service of dramatic effect, but limiting negative and threatening aspects to a necessary minimum; and, above all, a skilful use of stage set and a talented improvization, tuned to prevailing moods (see also Westley and Mintzberg 1989). These are very demanding skills; additionally, high visibility and high costs connected to failure contribute to the market value of this role.Last but not least, high salary and high perks prove, in themselves, that the leader is who he is supposed to be: the person who controls fate. The successful performance confirms the accuracy of the attribution. Why Are Managers Least Liked? Like the leader, the manager has also a symbolic function to fulfil: that of introducing and keeping order, opposing entropy. But unlike the leader, he is not given the splendour of a Moses-like performance. He is a Miser, or worse still, a Scrooge, without imagination, with his ridiculous common sense and care for money and things.Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 539 There are probably many mythical biographies representing the archetype of a manager. We took the Miser for his obvious similarity to an accountant. Misers are clearly comic characters, and we gladly laugh at them, as much as we need them. In the course of organizational life, however, this laughter becomes often bitter. Misers have a strong tendency to treat people as things. ‘Could anything be more cruel than this rigorous economy he inflicts on us, this unnatural parsimony under which we perforce languish? {The Miser, Act One) This is Cleante speaking t o Elise, but wouldn't we like to join him and La Fleche (‘A plague on all misers and their miserly ways! ‘) whenever we have spoken to our money-controllers? If the great leaders sometimes do a great deal of good by being othewise occupied (speaking to some god or other on some faraway mountain), managers sit at home, and manage: ‘Let us have you all in here. I want to give you instructions for this evening see that everybody has his job. Come here. Dame Claude, we'll start with you (. . . ) Your job is to clean up all round, and do be careful not to rub furniture too hard.I'm afraid of your wearing it out. Then, I'm putting you in charge of the bottles during the supper. If there's a single one missing or if anything is broken I shall hold you responsible and take it out of your wages. ‘ (Harpagon, The Miser, Act Three) A manager would, of course, find out the shortest way between Egypt and Israel and the cheapest means of transportation, and where would we be with our legend? Boland and O'Leary's (1988) amusing and insightful analysis of images of accounting in advertising illustrates this point very well.The advertisement artists attempted to project an image of a creative controller supported by clever machines but the laughable picture of a man with sleevelets and glasses always crept in. The enemy of creativity and change, the Miser nevertheless symbolizes order, the value which is just as indispensable to organization as control over the fate which Moses promised to his people. At any rate, manager is the one with the truly economic mind, ridiculous as it might seem to all who care about higher things. Why Are Entrepreneurs Admired and Feared? Who are entrepreneurs in terms of their dramatic performance?It is difficult to say as, unlike leaders and managers, who are limited to the political and/or organizational stage, entrepreneurs represent an everyman's dream of the successful life. They are Columbuses, treasure-hunters and Ho ratio Alger's heroes all in one. Their task is to create new worlds, often with a mainly pecuniary interest in the background. In a sense, their play is most often a tragedy, while leaders come from a drama and managers from a comedy. They might become Macbeths if things go wrong, but also inventors like Faust, who wanted to be immortal and succeeded — indeed, it depends on very individual moral judgement as to 40 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Wolff whether we see Faust as a failure or as a total success. When successful, entrepreneurs acquire God-like (or Satan-like) properties in eyes of the rest of the people: those who can create worlds are to be both worshipped and feared. In the beginning was meaning — In the beginning was power — In the beginning was action — (Faust) How can one translate Faust's dreams into modern economic terms? One possibility is some version of the American Dream, joining the archetype of the adventurer and the entrepreneur . Take, for example, the story of Uncle Jake.In 1929, Uncle Jake left his family home and the horse-breeding farm inherited from his father in Connecticut for Alaska. His mother and friends stayed behind — that is, those friends who did not commit suicide after the Great Depression. The crash did not, however, influence Uncle Jake, neither economically nor psychologically: his optimism seemed enhanced by the dramas around him. This is how John Hawkes' epos Adventures in the Alaskan Skin Trade (1942) starts. It builds up a character similar to Ragged Dick and other Horatio Alger stories, but makes it clear that the economic success is only a means and not the end in itself, as in Faust.Ragged Dick, for example, was a self-made man, the intrepid capitalist, a person who became rich and made others happier by gambling on a new product or innovation. But Uncle Jake never got really rich. He stands for freedom, creativity and dream-building. The materialistic character of the drea m has to do with another aspect of the American Dream — success as measured by money (which in old Europe was usually measured by pohtical influence). The social costs Jake created by going to Alaska were enormous.He barely noticed his wife's death; his daughter became a prostitute (there were not many ways for symbolizing women's failure in life in those days) until the day when she managed to free herself from his influence and could reflect on her father: ‘He was an artist of adventurous life. The exclusivity of the adventure was more important to him than the treasures he constantly promised to me and my mother'. In the eyes of the daughter Jake was not an entrepreneur at all. He was only speaking as such. We are reminded of Iacocca again: has he created a world or did he only speak as if?In a radical thought of Goodman (1978), this difference is immaterial. Until somebody comes with a better story, Iacocca will remain the author of Chrysler's success in the eyes of the public. In his incisive analysis of the case of El-Sayed (the former chairman of a Swedish company who, after a dazzling success, ended up in prison), Kets de Vries observes: ‘All entrepreneurs need dreams, but in dreaming they are not always effective in distinguishing fact from fancy' (1990a: 683). When they succeed, this very trait is seen as a source of their success. Leaders On and Off the Organizationai Stage 541When they fail, they fail for the same reason. The line between a ‘dream' and a ‘distortion of reality' is a tentative one. But all of them, Fausts and Jakes and Dicks, have one thing in common; they leave behind a trail of broken hearts, crushed realities and, in general, extremely heavy costs (they are no Misers! ) In order to better contrast entrepreneurs with managers we can take another real-life but mythologized example, that of Columbus. As 1992 comes close and both Seville and Genoa are preparing for great celebrations, it becomes clear t hat Columbus ‘discovered' America due to his ignorance and mythomaniac tendencies.An Italian physician with a passion for geography told him, on the basis of several wrong estimations, that it is feasible to reach India by going there on an Eastern route. It has been said, by Columbus apologets, that he discovered America whereas other, better educated entrepreneurs did not. Actually, they did not because they were managers — in the positive sense of the word. Apparently, the Portuguese navigators knew very well that such a continent existed, had all the estimations correct, and planned the discovery of America as a next project after having reached India via the Western route.Whereas most of the Columbus biographers ridicule mental rigidity and lack of intuition on the part of the ‘managers' from the Portuguese School of Navigation, the more mundane interpretation would have it that they did not go to India via America because they knew it was impossible. As an a dministrator of the new land, Columbus and his two brothers gave an incredible show of incompetence and cruelty, to the extent that Ferdinand and Isabella were forced to call them back and appoint a new administrator.Such is then the story of Columbus — a real entrepreneur, as opposed to Columbus as a mythical personage (Mendelssohn 1976), but in both versions one thing is clear: entrepreneurs tend to trample over old worlds in their attempts to create new. Why should they be so hailed and respected, then? Because they also bring change, building new realities on the ruins of the old. Personages and Processes As we have attempted to show, it is an illusion that one role ‘conquers' the remaining two.We could go further and further back and, most likely, find the same (as Crozier's example of Saint-Simon already indicates): theoreticians quarrelling about which role is the best, and practitioners playing all three. The fashion of the day elevates one role above the other and then abandons it again. Now we need order, next we need change, and then we need to control our fate. What shapes the fashion, then? Reading the organization theory debate as it has evolved over the last 70 years, one acquires an impression that a demand for leaders, managers or 542 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Rolf Woiff ntrepreneurs is dictated by organizations themselves — straight to the researchers' ears. Then, in an intellectual discourse about the functioning of organizations, the researchers establish which properties the executives should have. They inform the practitioners about what is desired and the practitioners try to follow norms as well as they can. The next wave of research results and theories brings new developments to light, the theory is perfected and the practice follows suit. Such an egocentric representation can be sustained only as a result of firm isolation from the political, social and economic context of organizing.Indeed, with few and unsyst ematic exceptions, organizational literature neglects what is happening in the world around organizations. Sometimes a simple agent called ‘market' comes into the picture, but even then just as a part of ‘environment' which is, indeed, more and more what organizations managed to enact around themselves. Organizations, the open systems, are for ever immortalized in a closed system of an artificially created frame of reference. We would like to point out that organizations act in historically shaped economic and political circumstances.If we bring these into the picture, the leadership debate can be portrayed, for example, as follows: Figure 1 1920s 1929 1930s 1939-1945 1940s 1950s An Historical Speculation Entrepreneurs Depression (economic crisis) Leaders WAR (poiiticai crisis) Managers Entrepreneurs (economic hope) 1960s 1968 1970s 1973-1975 1980s 1990s Leaders (poiiticai crisis) Managers (economic crisis? ) Leaders Entrepreneurs? The 1920s seemed to herald a recovery f rom the economic disaster of the 1st World War and the entrepreneurs were called for to create prosperity with their innovative thinking. The Great Depression brought an abrupt end to this dream.Frightened and in despair, people called for leaders. And leaders they got: Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini, Churchill, Roosevelt. We shall not plunge into what many historians, on many occasions, have analyzed with delight; was it chance, a historically determined development, or all of those. We assume that people try to attribute meaning both to random events and to planned action. It is this factor that stands for the continuity in the process, and not mechanically connected chains of causes and effects. The war made people wary of leaders and gave rise to operational research in the U. S. A.Managers were also welcome in Europe where a big job of restructuring the post-war economies was started. It became possible to think in terms of economic challenge, not only in terms of economic necessity . Entrepreneurs acquired room to play. Slowly, the Leaders On and Off the Organizational Stage 543 prosperity became feasible and leaders were needed again, to push forward and expand their successes. The imperialist ambitions and the failure of new, democratic leaders brought the political unrest of the Sixties. Throughout the rational 1970s, managers were in vogue, to introduce some order and rationality into the world.The oil crisis, however, left in its wake the realization of a possible world-wide economic crisis. People turned to leaders again. As the crisisfeeling dissolved, however, the leaders were somewhat diminished in importance. It was Gorbachov, at least so long as he behaved as a political entrepreneur, who collected the popularity laurels. This is, of course, only one of several possible stories. We do not claim the monopoly on the one and only true story — rather, we would like to see more historical organizational research that traces down social, and not qu asi-biological (as in population ecology) developments.Additionally, such stories would have to pay increased attention to the rhetorics that are used in telling them (McCloskey 1986). In this paper, for example, we have used what is considered to be a chauvinist language: we have spoken of executives as if they were men. This was done on purpose: the dramatical metaphors gave us an additional insight into a matter that is becoming fashionable now, namely, why are there so few women leaders? Simply, the roles are not the female roles.There are, of course, some convincing performances, especially by female Moseses, such as Ghandi or Thatcher, but nevertheless their performance is reminiscent of Shakespearean times when men performed all female roles: brilliant but artificial. Archetypical female roles are hard to fit into modern organizations: neither Dame aux Camellias nor Mother Svea have good chances, at least not in executive roles. In this respect, the organizational theatre has a very traditional repertoire. Researchers As Theatre Critics The question that concludes our paper and, hopefully, starts a discussion is: What should — or can — researchers do?Shall we contribute to the debate as participants? Shall we attempt to unmask and deconstruct it? Shall we write new scripts or ironize the old ones? Holding to our theatre metaphor, we see our choice as analogous to that facing the theatre critics. We can opt for what we ourselves like best, or prompt the directors to keep the public content, or to keep the public on its toes. Over time, however, we should be able to arrive at a more systematic reflection on the organizational theatre. It would be illuminating to be able to follow the process of ppointing and dismantling the ‘favourites' in the social consciousness; to see when and how people reach to the repertoire of archetypes to exchange the last one for another. This means following not only historical developments, but also the sh aping of fashions, the development of organizational and occupational cultures, the ups and downs of professionalization, and other social pro- 544 Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges, Roif Wolff cesses of sense-making. The leadership debate can thus be seen as a transformation of symbols which both follows and announces other kinds of transformation.Organization research can then evaluate contemporary performances and try to build a theory of organizational theatre in a historical perspective. Note * The first version of this paper was presented at the 4th International SCOS Conferenee on Organizational Symbolism and Corporate Culture, INSEAD, Fontainebleau, France, June 28-30, 1989. We would like to acknowledge helpful comments from Peter J. Frost, Gareth Morgan and Susan Schneider in preparing the present version. References Bass, Bernard M. 1960 Leadership, psychology and organizational behavior. New York: Harper. 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Wednesday, October 23, 2019

If I Die in a Combat Zone

The novels If I Die in a Combat Zone and The Things They Carried were both written by Tim O’Brien. Tim O’Brien is a Vietnam War veteran and all of the novels he wrote are about his times in the war. He includes the same characters in the stories, but changed their names and descriptions. I do not believe that O’Brien wrote the books for any political reason. Both of the novels have very much in common including the style that it is written, and the stories that are told. There are also differences including the order of the stories, and the endings.These similarities and differences are important for the novels because it shows the diversity that different soldiers go through in times of war. The style that O’Brien writes in both novels is first person narrative. O’Brien tells the story in his point of view, and tells different stories. In If I Die in a Combat Zone the stories he tells his whole time in Vietnam. He starts with how he got drafted int o the war and his training. He considered leaving the country to go live in Europe. At the last minute he almost left, but then decided to stay and go to Vietnam.He continues the story in chronological order of the times and significant events that had happened throughout his duty. In The Things They Carried, O’Brien told significant stories that were told out of chronological order. The stories told in The Things They Carried were also less biographical and focused more on the men in his platoon. He also jumps back and forth between the war and post war, where he talked to the surviving men from his platoon. He tells the stories of the war, and the stories that the men told him. This is one of the differences between the two books.The ways the stories are told are different. Even though both books are told in the perspective of O’Brien, when he is telling the stories in The Things They Carried, we are more sympathetic to the other characters because it mostly focuses on them. In both of the stories, O’Brien also uses the same terminology in the books. He uses what I describe as â€Å"war† terminology. He uses words and acronyms. For example he said that they were looking for Charlie. I’m not very educated on the Vietnam War so I looked up who Charlie was. Then I realized that Charlie is the Vietnamese army.There were other terms including the different guns and different mine types. Thankfully, O’Brien explained those terms. O’Brien is consistent with his terms and it makes it easier to read one book after reading the other because of this consistency. The endings of If I Die in a Combat Zone and The Things They Carried are different. In If I Die in a Combat Zone, the end is O’Brien going home from Vietnam. He says that there is no joy in leaving Vietnam. He says that he thought of the friends he gained and the friends he lost. He reminisced what he learned, and realized that he did not learn a lot.The e nding of The Things They Carried is one last story that focused on O’Brien. It was the first time that he had seen a dead body in Vietnam. It then flashes back to his past where his girlfriend had died because of a brain tumor. That was the first time he had seen a dead body. The soldiers say that to keep a person alive is to always tell memories. But O’Brien didn’t do that, he just imagined that his girlfriend was still alive and waiting for him. Although collectively I did not like either of Tim O’Brien’s books, but I can say that they are well written.The reason I did not like the books was because of the graphics that were described. I understand that learning about the Vietnam War is important, and the horrific aspects are important to learn also, but I do not agree with describing in detail about bodies being blown to pieces. Both books have their similarities in being that they are about the Vietnam War, the style of the book, and the storie s and their content. Although the differences were big, including the order of the stories, and the perspective of the stories, the books are close in content. I believe that these books can be read simultaneously with each other.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Transgenic Rice Plants Essays - Molecular Biology, Free Essays

Transgenic Rice Plants Essays - Molecular Biology, Free Essays Transgenic Rice Plants The following form contents were entered on 15th Apr 97 Date = 15 Apr 97 23:58:50 subject name = Sarah Lenhardt email = [emailprotected] publish = yes subject = Biology title = Transgenic Rice Plants Transgenic Rice Plants that Express Insect Resistance For centuries, rice has been one of the most important staple crops for the world and it now currently feeds more than two billion people, mostly living in developing countries. Rice is the major food source of Japan and China and it enjoys a long history of use in both cultures. In 1994, worldwide rice production peaked at 530 million metric tons. Yet, more than 200 million tons of rice are lost each year to biotic stresses such as disease and insect infestation. This extreme loss of crop is estimated to cost at least several billion dollars per year and heavy losses often leave third world countries desperate for their staple food. Therefore, measures must be taken to decrease the amount of crop loss and increase yields that could be used to feed the populations of the world. One method to increase rice crop yields is the institution of transgenic rice plants that express insect resistance genes. The two major ways to accomplish insect resistance in rice are the introduction of the potato proteinas e inhibitor II gene or the introduction of the Bacillus thuringiensis toxin gene into the plant's genome. Other experimental methods of instituting insect resistance include the use of the arcelin gene, the snowdrop lectin/GNA (galanthus nivallis agglutinin) protein, and phloem specific promoters and finally the SBTI gene. The introduction of the potato proteinase inhibitor II gene, or PINII, marks the first time that useful genes were successfully transferred from a dicotyledonus plant to a monocotyledonous plant. Whenever the plant is wounded by insects, the PINII gene produces a protein that interferes with the insect's digestive processes. These protein inhibitors can be detrimental to the growth and development of a wide range of insects that attack rice plants and result in insects eating less of the plant material. Proteinase inhibitors are of particular interest because they are part of the rice plant's natural defense system against insects. They are also beneficial because they are inactivated by cooking and therefore pose no environmental or health hazards to the human consumption of PINII treated rice. In order to produce fertile transgenic rice plants, plasmid pTW was used, coupled with the pin 2 promoter and the inserted rice actin intron, act 1. The combination of the pin 2 promoter and act 1 intron has been shown to produce a high level, wound inducible expression of foreign genes in transgenic plants. This was useful for delivering the protein inhibitor to insects which eat plant material. The selectable marker in this trial was the bacterial phosphinothricin acetyl transferase gene (bar) which was linked to the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter. Next the plasmid pTW was injected into cell cultures of Japonica rice using the BiolisticTM particle delivery system. The BiolisticTM system proceeds as follows: Immature embryos and embryonic calli of six rice materials were bombarded with tungsten particles coated with DNA of two plasmids containing the appropriate genes. The plant materials showed high frequency of expression of genes when stained with X-Gluc. The number of blue or transgenic units was approximately 1,000. After one week, the transgenic cells were transferred onto selection medium containing hygromycin B. After two weeks, fresh cell cultures could be seen on bombarded tissue. Some cultures were white and some cultures were blue. Isolated cell cultures were further selected on hygromycin resistance. However, no control plant survived. Then twenty plates of cells were bombarded with the PINII gene, from which over two hundred plants were regenerated and grown in a greenhouse. After their growth, they were tested for PINII gene using DNA blot hybridization and 73% of the plants were found to be transgenic. DNA blot hybridization is the process by which DNA from each sample was digested by a suitable restriction endonuclease, separated on an aragose gel, transferred to a nylon membrane, and then finally hybridized with the 1.5 kb DNA fragment with pin 2 coding and 3' regions as the probe. The results also indicate that the PINII gene was inherited by offspring of the original transgenic line, that the PINII levels were higher among many of the offspring and that when PINII levels rose in wounded leaves, the PINII levels in unwounded leaves also rose. However, the PINII gene is not 100% effective in eliminating insects because it does not produce an insect toxin, just a proteinase inhibitor. Yet, greater insect

Monday, October 21, 2019

Definition and Examples of Graphemes

Definition and Examples of Graphemes A  grapheme is a  letter of the alphabet, a mark of punctuation, or any other individual symbol in a writing system. The grapheme has been described as the smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning. Matching a grapheme to a phoneme (and vice versa) is called a grapheme-phoneme correspondence. Etymology: From the Greek, writing Examples and Observations Trevor A. HarleyThe basic unit of written language is the letter. The name grapheme is given to the letter or combination of letters that represents a phoneme. For example, the word ghost contains five letters and four graphemes (gh, o, s, and t), representing four phonemes. There is much more variability in the structure of written language than there is in spoken languages. Whereas all spoken languages utilize a basic distinction between consonants and vowels, there is no such common thread to the worlds written languages.Linda C. EhrieTypically, beginners are taught grapheme-phoneme correspondences when they begin school. These associations are easier to learn if students already know the names of letters, because most letter names include relevant sounds, for example /t/ in tee, and k in kay. . . .There are about 40 distinctive phonemes in English, but 70 letters or letter combinations to symbolize phonemes. This makes pronouncing spellings easier than writing correct spellings. David CrystalGraphemes are the smallest units in a writing system capable of causing a contrast in meaning. In the English alphabet, the switch from cat to bat introduces a meaning change; therefore, c and b represent different graphemes. It is usual to transcribe graphemes within angle brackets, to show their special status: c, b. The main graphemes of English are the twenty-six units that make up the alphabet. Other graphemes include the various marks of punctuation: ., ;, etc., and such special symbols as , , and ( £). . . .Graphemes . . . may signal whole words or word partsas with the numerals, where each grapheme 1, 2, etc. is spoken as a word that varies from language to language (a logogram). . . . And several of the relationships between words are conveyed by graphology more clearly than by phonology: for example, the link between sign and signature is very clear in writing, but it is less obvious in speech, because the g is pronounced in the second word, but not in the fi rst. Florian CoulmasSpellings like to, too, two, sea, see, and phrase, frays, multiplied by hundreds of other examples, make for complex grapheme-phoneme correspondences, but the interpretation of written texts does not depend on these correspondences alone. Exploiting other systemic levels of language is equally common and practical. The plural of both dog and cat is uniformly indicated by -s, although it is [dogz] but [kaets]. In the event -s can be understood as indicating the plural morpheme rather than a sound. Accordingly, such spellings are sometimes referred to as morphograms.Cauline B. LoweMany phoneme–grapheme correspondences are conditional. The spelling of a given phoneme depends on the speech sounds that come before or after the target phoneme–grapheme correspondence.  For instance, doubled consonants often  follow short vowels in  closed syllables:  stuff, doll, mess, jazz. This pattern is an orthographic convention; the extra letters do not correspond to extra sounds. Each of these example words has only one consonant phoneme at the end of the word.

Sunday, October 20, 2019

The Battle of Ypres 1915 Cost 6000 Canadian Casualties

The Battle of Ypres 1915 Cost 6000 Canadian Casualties In 1915, the second Battle of Ypres established the reputation of the Canadians as a fighting force. The 1st Canadian Division had just arrived on the Western Front when they won recognition by holding their ground against a new weapon of modern warfare - chlorine gas. It was also in the trenches at the second Battle of Ypres that John McCrae wrote the poem when a close friend was killed, one of 6000 Canadian casualties in just 48 hours. War World War I Date of Battle of Ypres 1915 April 22 to 24, 1915 Location of Battle of Ypres 1915 Near Ypres, Belgium Canadian Troops at Ypres 1915 1st Canadian Division Canadian Casualties at the Battle of Ypres 1915 6035 Canadian casualties in 48 hoursMore than 2000 Canadians died Canadian Honours at the Battle of Ypres 1915 Four Canadians won the Victoria Cross at the Battle of Ypres in 1915 Edward Donald BellewFrederick Bud FisherFrederick William HallFrancis Alexander Scrimger Summary of the Battle of Ypres 1915 The 1st Canadian Division had just arrived at the front and were moved to Ypres Salient, a bulge in the front of the City of Ypres in Belgium.The Germans held the high ground.The Canadians had two British divisions on their right, and two French army divisions on their left.On April 22, after an artillery bombardment, the Germans released 5700 cylinders of chlorine gas. The green chlorine gas was heavier than air and sank into the trenches forcing soldiers out. The gas attack was followed by strong infantry assaults. The French defenses were forced to retreat, leaving a four-mile wide hole in the Allied line.The Germans did not have enough reserves or protection against the chlorine gas for their own troops to take immediate advantage of the gap.The Canadians fought through the night to close the gap.On the first night, the Canadians launched a counter-attack to drive the Germans out of Kitcheners Wood near St. Julien. The Canadians cleared the woods but had to retire. More attacks t hat night resulted in disastrous casualties but bought some time to close the gap. Two days later the Germans attacked the Canadian line at St. Julien, again using chlorine gas. The Canadians held on until reinforcements arrived.

Saturday, October 19, 2019

The Effect on Sales of Digital Music Through Legal and Illegal Research Paper

The Effect on Sales of Digital Music Through Legal and Illegal Distribution Channels - Research Paper Example Now as market leaders, it is essential for Apple iTunes to understand the negative factors causing this downslide of revenue due to losing of market share and how to counter the negative forces with its strategies to increase profitability. 3. Research Structure Initially this research paper will categorize the online music distribution channels similar to the iTunes business model. It will help to demonstrate the functioning of the online distribution channels and gain familiarity with their marketing techniques and strategies. It will also help to analyze the impact of other music distribution channels on the digital music distribution i.e. both legal and illegal distribution channels to be considered. This study will also help to establish a relation between pirated online distribution channels and its effect on the legal distributors like Sony Entertainment, iTunes, etc. Furthermore the outcome and analysis of the study will help to recommend and suggest marketing strategies so t hat the legal music distributors can avail measures to generate higher revenues in this prevailing market conditions. II. Aims and objectives 1. Aims The aim of the research is to analyze the impact of piracy on the legal music distribution channels and recommending steps for the crisis resolution. 2. Objectives To evaluate the functioning of the online music distribution system using iTunes. To analyze the difference in distribution methods between legal online providers and legal hard copy CD and DVD providers. To evaluate the extent to which music piracy effect legal distribution of online music. To find whether piracy initiated the emergence of online music distributors like iTunes. To define the user types for both legal and illegal music distribution... This research paper will categorize the online music distribution channels similar to the iTunes business model. It will help to demonstrate the functioning of the online distribution channels and gain familiarity with their marketing techniques and strategies. It will also help to analyze the impact of other music distribution channels on the digital music distribution i.e. both legal and illegal distribution channels to be considered. This study will also help to establish a relation between pirated online distribution channels and its effect on the legal distributors like Sony Entertainment, iTunes, etc. Furthermore the outcome and analysis of the study will help to recommend and suggest marketing strategies so that the legal music distributors can avail measures to generate higher revenues in this prevailing market conditions. This report makes a conclusion that there are many advantages like easy availability of data and saving of cost, time and effort etc. but a secondary researcher needs awareness about the limitations of the methodology. It is so because information and data may not be accurate if they are not collected from reliable and reputed source. This will been addressed in this research. Data always must be cross checked by comparing data from other reliable sources as an out of date or wrong data may lead to findings which may not have parity with the real scenario. Another demerit of secondary data is the sales reports and database provided by them are of existing customers. So these are some limitations mostly faced during the secondary research study.

Friday, October 18, 2019

Operational Management in Hospitality (A REPORT) Essay

Operational Management in Hospitality (A REPORT) - Essay Example These above mentioned value-added, important activities should always be aligned with the market opportunities in order to have an optimal performance†. (Jacobs, 2001) Operations management also focuses carefully on how to manage the different processes in order to distribute and produce different services and products. Generally, small businesses or enterprises dont usually talk about this term which is known as operations management, but on the other hand, they do carry out different activities that management schools associate with. There are many small businesses that generally follow some basic rules in order to make their business stable so that they can work well. They also know that there are many other companies who work well by following operation management rules and regulations. But no doubt they do use some basic principles in order to compete with all the other companies. All the different activities usually include development, production creation, distribution and production. Other related activities include inventory control, managing all the purchases, storage, quality control, evaluations and logistics. One of a great deal of fo cus is mainly on effectiveness and efficiency of all these above mentioned processes. Therefore, operations management also includes an analysis and substantial measurement of internal process. Restructuring is termed as an important process with the help of which any company can regain its profits and can work better. Restructuring can be classified into various steps. It can be done in any phase or in any process. All the departments of the company require restructuring because it is necessary in order to gain maximum potential. â€Å"With the help of restructuring, operation management can also work well because it is only with the help of it that a company can gain maximum shares†. (Jacobs, 2001) SSP are the leader in providing advice which helps a lot in designing the whole

Development of a microfluidic device for extraction Essay

Development of a microfluidic device for extraction - Essay Example This newly microfluidic device for protein extraction may find an application in the area of proteomic research. Keywords: Microfluidic device; Sol-gel; Silica monolith; Protein extraction; Octadecyl (C18) 1. Introduction It is becoming increasingly important in the development of new medicines to use important a microfluidic tool for identifying proteins implicated in disease pathways. As the search for novel molecules to tackle diseases increases, the need to identify proteins on biological targets also increases. Efficient extraction of proteins is the most critical step for proteomics by removing the interfering materials and improving the detection sensitivity (Ahn & Wang, 2008). The recently invented silica monolithic materials are highly permeable to liquid flow and have high mass transport compared with the packed beds. Moreover, the monolithic stationary phase does not need frits, which can cause air bubbles to form and the proteins can be adsorbed into the frits and remain trapped (Cabrera et al., 2002 ). Fabrication silica monolith inside the microfluidic devices can decrease the volume of the sample and the reagents, and reduce the time of the analysis (Girault et al., 2004). Bienvenue et al. (2006) have observed that the negative aspect of the sol-gel monolith in microfluidic device is the fact that it shrinks while the monolith is formed. They further explain that this is can then cause the creation of an opening between the silica network and the microchip wall resulting in reduced surface area for protein adsoption. The aim of this contribution is to investigate the fabrication of a simple microfluidic device contained in a crack-free silica monolith to decrease sample handling, reduce contamination, be truly portable, and decrease analysis time. Moreover, its aim is to modify the surface of the silica monolith to Octadecyl silica (ODS) to use it for pre-concentration and extraction of proteins. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Chemicals and materi als Poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) MW=10,000 Da, trimethylchlorosilane, tetramethylorthosilicate 99 % (TMOS), chlorodimethyloctadecylsilane 95 %, 2,6-lutidine 99 %, NaCl, and trizma base were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (Poole, UK) and used as received without any further purification. Bovine pancreas insulin, bovine heart cytochrome C, chicken egg white lysozyme, ?-lactoglobulin from milk bovine, haemoglobin from human, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) were purchased from the same. Nitric acid, ammonia, toluene, HPLC grade acetonitrile (ACN), and trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) was obtained from Fisher Scientific UK Ltd. (Loughborough, UK). MicroTight Adapter was purchased from Kinesis (Cambs, UK). Poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK) tubing was purchased from Anachem (Luton, UK). 2.2. Instrumentation Baby bee syringe pump from Bioanalytical System Inc. (West Lafayette, USA). The instrument used for detection was HPLC-UV detection: 785A UV/Visible Detector from Perkin Elmer (California, USA). T he reversed-phase analytical column was Symmetry C8 column, 4.6 mm ? 250 mm packed with silica particles (size 5 Â µm) from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Loughborough, UK). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) (EVO 60. Manufacturer: Carl Zeiss Ltd. (Welwyn Garden City, UK). SEMPREP 2 Sputter Coater from Nanotechnology Ltd. (Sandy, UK). 2.3. Fabrication of the silica-based

Fundamentals of Information and Information Systems Essay

Fundamentals of Information and Information Systems - Essay Example This report pertains to the current position of Hewlett Packard (HP) Information Systems, its current business problems and the way ahead for this business organization. My first impression at the outset of the ESS Information System (E-Services Solution)group is to point out that this venture may be successful at the outset given the period 1999 until 2000 but it has all the ingredients of becoming a victim of its own success and potentially damaging the work culture of HP with the so called aim of "infecting" the entire spirit.(see Case Study 2000).I would reach such a bleak conclusion for many reasons which I will discuss below but the pith and substance of my analysis as a management consultant is that "small is beautiful" but once it gets large it becomes ugly. And this is true for HP's future if the ESS information system which is under discussion here is allowed to grown into its organizational management and Information System culture. ... And this is true for HP's future if the ESS information system which is under discussion here is allowed to grown into its organizational management and Information System culture. It can be seen that in 1999 alone through the efforts of the ESS Information System,HP has achieved the status as a leading manufacturer of computer products, including printers, servers, workstations, and personal computers and is generating a revenue of $42.4 billion and net income of $3.1 billion.It has over 80,000 employees worldwide and a strong local presence in Silicon Valley and the Bay Area. The problems of HP and the role of ESS.The case study has given us a bird's eyes view of the historical problems with the management strategy of HP as follows. 1. In 1939 Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard, found HP and were an instant success with their venture and wanted to pursue their own unique way of doing business: "The HP Way." The evolution of the HP Way began early. Even though their decentralized management information system style was a success in the earlier dealing and by 1957 Hewlett and Packard had their own corporate objectives, underling the "The HP Way" through management strategies like Management By Wandering Around, Management By Objectives, and the Open Door Policy inspired later additions, including Open Communication and Total Quality Control .These practices cannot be seen anywhere today and later on the conservative attitude of the HP information system management with in a decentralized company was more product oriented than customer oriented.(refer to Case Study 2000) 2. At this point HP's corporate software and support division and corporate systems

Thursday, October 17, 2019

Is the hotel postmodernist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Is the hotel postmodernist - Essay Example The reason I like Atlantis, the Palm hotel Dubai is due to its ideal location and huge infrastructure. It’s not only the building, the architecture and the interior of the building that enchants my soul but the location and the theme of the hotel mesmerize me. The entire hotel is based on a resort theme; a world surrounded by water and marine life as well as it provides a world of recreational activities for the people staying on board which makes it different from other hotels all around the world. It is a post modern hotel as mentioned earlier that it is a 5 star resort which is surrounded by Aquaventure themed water park on 40 acres. The hotel also has a conference center for high end executive class meetings and conferences. What makes this hotel interesting is the presence of Dolphin Bay which gives a lifetime opportunity to the guests to swim and play with dolphins while enjoying their stay at hotel. Each corner of the hotel represents the unique taste of Arabia with the sea-facing sights and an insight to marine life from the corner of every wall within the hotel. Interior Design: The interior of the hotel is designed by the efforts of internationally known designers and interiors. It was a joint effort by Jeffert Beers of JBI (Jeffery Beers International) along with the skilled team of designers from David Rockwell from the Rockwell Group and Adam D. Tihany. Others including Wilson and Associates, WATG, EDSA and Wimberly have given the best of their efforts in creating an excellent masterpiece. The hotel also features the works by the world class interior artists Dale Chihuly and Albino Gonzalez. The lobby of the Royal Towers at arrival greets the tourists and the guests with its magnificent artwork and murals. The 19 meter high ceiling of the lobby welcomes the guests with splendid hand artwork painted by Albino Gonzalez; a Spanish artist. The murals on the ceilings depicts four seasons of the year along with the fine representation of solar cal endar’s development. The ceilings finely tell the story of Arabian legends and their splendor to the visitors. The entire interior of the hotel makes it uniquely different from other hotels around the world. Location Atlantis, the Palm is located at The Palm, Dubai which is an artificial sand island. The island itself is shaped like a palm tree which makes the location interesting for the visitors and the tourists. The hotel has a total of 1539 rooms. It was a huge project which cost 1.8$ billion during its construction. The relationship between the construction sector and the Dubai’s hotel industry has been extremely positive. Ideally, the Northern corridors of Dubai including its favorite tourism destinations have become the focus of modern designs. The implementation of a number of tourism concepts across the Arab Peninsula has become an answer to the country’s bristling hotel industry. The Dubai historical factor as well as the stylistic-semiotic study which covers the development of the country’s hotel architecture indicates that the focus is based on the hotel-casino complexes and the self-styled postmodernist buildings. Their impact is significant because the modernist attitude include the changing trends that mirage the International Styles and rarely defined traditional Dubai Architectures. Introduction The relatively short Dubai coastline provides a symbolic history that explains the country’s is strategically located and it has been found to be

Macro Written Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Macro Written Assignment - Essay Example The latter on the other hand, augments the overall money supply in the economy more precipitously. Expansionary policies are conventionally utilized in the attempt of combating unemployment in an economic downturn. This is achieved by depressing the rates of interest with the intention of allowing easy credit to entice business expansion. Contractionary policies are expected to decelerate inflation so as to prevent the consequential distortions combined with the relapse of the values of assets (Weale, 2013). The United Kingdom public might expect a change in monetary policies because of the falling unemployment and economic recovery that the country is experiencing. The change anticipated to happen is the overhauling or revamping of the interest rate policy of the Bank of England. The interest rates are to be determined by unemployment, among other indicators. The introduction of the forward guidance policy kept the bank from increasing interest rates to beyond 0.5 per cent. The bank governor, Mark Carney, however, asserted that the policy needed revising because of the outstanding strong growth in employment. This adjustment involves rising rates of interest. This is to be done following the observation of such indicators as spare capacity within the economy, wages as well as productivity. The bank is to provide predictions on these range of indicators based on expectations of the market of 1.5 per cent increase by the year 2017. The Bank of England outlined its stratagems for alterations in rates of interest in the future. This could probably mean more suffering for the saving population but there would continue to be inexpensive mortgage rates. The Bank would only consider increasing the current low interest rate levels if either inflation or unemployment or both was no longer manageable. The stratagem or change in monetary policy known as the forward guidance would affect the main indicators in

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

Is the hotel postmodernist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Is the hotel postmodernist - Essay Example The reason I like Atlantis, the Palm hotel Dubai is due to its ideal location and huge infrastructure. It’s not only the building, the architecture and the interior of the building that enchants my soul but the location and the theme of the hotel mesmerize me. The entire hotel is based on a resort theme; a world surrounded by water and marine life as well as it provides a world of recreational activities for the people staying on board which makes it different from other hotels all around the world. It is a post modern hotel as mentioned earlier that it is a 5 star resort which is surrounded by Aquaventure themed water park on 40 acres. The hotel also has a conference center for high end executive class meetings and conferences. What makes this hotel interesting is the presence of Dolphin Bay which gives a lifetime opportunity to the guests to swim and play with dolphins while enjoying their stay at hotel. Each corner of the hotel represents the unique taste of Arabia with the sea-facing sights and an insight to marine life from the corner of every wall within the hotel. Interior Design: The interior of the hotel is designed by the efforts of internationally known designers and interiors. It was a joint effort by Jeffert Beers of JBI (Jeffery Beers International) along with the skilled team of designers from David Rockwell from the Rockwell Group and Adam D. Tihany. Others including Wilson and Associates, WATG, EDSA and Wimberly have given the best of their efforts in creating an excellent masterpiece. The hotel also features the works by the world class interior artists Dale Chihuly and Albino Gonzalez. The lobby of the Royal Towers at arrival greets the tourists and the guests with its magnificent artwork and murals. The 19 meter high ceiling of the lobby welcomes the guests with splendid hand artwork painted by Albino Gonzalez; a Spanish artist. The murals on the ceilings depicts four seasons of the year along with the fine representation of solar cal endar’s development. The ceilings finely tell the story of Arabian legends and their splendor to the visitors. The entire interior of the hotel makes it uniquely different from other hotels around the world. Location Atlantis, the Palm is located at The Palm, Dubai which is an artificial sand island. The island itself is shaped like a palm tree which makes the location interesting for the visitors and the tourists. The hotel has a total of 1539 rooms. It was a huge project which cost 1.8$ billion during its construction. The relationship between the construction sector and the Dubai’s hotel industry has been extremely positive. Ideally, the Northern corridors of Dubai including its favorite tourism destinations have become the focus of modern designs. The implementation of a number of tourism concepts across the Arab Peninsula has become an answer to the country’s bristling hotel industry. The Dubai historical factor as well as the stylistic-semiotic study which covers the development of the country’s hotel architecture indicates that the focus is based on the hotel-casino complexes and the self-styled postmodernist buildings. Their impact is significant because the modernist attitude include the changing trends that mirage the International Styles and rarely defined traditional Dubai Architectures. Introduction The relatively short Dubai coastline provides a symbolic history that explains the country’s is strategically located and it has been found to be